EnuLISH STYLE: 



A COURSE OE INSTRUCTION 



ATTAINMENT OF A GOOD STYLE OF WETTING. 



gut ^hiaxknl Mkzttlg at % dibglis^ Itatjpragt 

AND BRIEF 

REMARKS ON ITS NATURE AND GENIUS, 

-.INTENDED FOR THE HIGHER CLASSES IN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 

G. F. GRAHAM, 

AUTHOR OF "ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION ;" 

"HELPS TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR;' 

&C. &C. &e, 




LONDON: 

N, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, & ROBERTS. 

1S37. 



~^$T- 



X k 



^.i$ 



London" : 

Printed by Spottiswoobe & Co. 
New-street Square. 



//'/ 



/It 

PREFACE. 



It would appear a paradox that, though works on 
the English language are generally received with 
favour by the public, the study of composition 
lould make little or no progress in our educa- 
onrl : titutions. But it is certainly true, that 
few _ ix grammar schools for boys have yet 
made English a distinct subject of attention ; and 
where it is admitted, the study is pursued in so 
desultory and imperfect a manner, that it pro- 
duces but little fruit. In those ladies' schools, 
indeed, where any pretensions are made to impart 
sound general knowledge, English composition 
holds a more prominent place; but even there, it 
is not always regularly studied, and is frequently 
given only as an occasional exercise. 

The recent exposures of the ignorance of can- 
didates for the diplomatic service, in the very rudi- 
ments of their own language, and other branches 
of elementary education, would sufficiently war- 

A 2 



IV PREFACE. 

rant any one in the attempt to supply a partial 
remedy for such a state of things ; and, in the 
hope of contributing to the furtherance of so 
desirable an object, the writer offers the present 
work to the consideration of the public. 



CONTENTS. 



PART L 

IDEAS, WORDS, AND PROPOSITIONS. 



Introduction 






1 


Ideas , . ... 






1 


Concrete and Abstract Terms . 






4 


Abstraction 






5 


Generalisation 






7 


Common Names 






8 


Proper Names 






9 


Primary and Secondary Senses 






9 


Analogy- 






11 


Propositions . 






13 


Compound Subjects . 






16 


Compound Predicates 






17 


Complements . 






17 


Classification of Complements 






IS 


Complements of Circumstance 






20 


Complements of Time 






20 


Complements of Place 






21 


Complements of Manner 






21 


Complements of the Object 






22 


Complements of the Agent 






22 


Complements of the Person 






23 


A 3 









VI 



CONTENTS. 



Complementary Propositions . 

Propositions used as Complements 
Analysis 

Forms of Sentences 
Forms of Sentences for Imitation 
Examination Questions on Part I. 



PART II. 

DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTION, NARRATIVE, ETC. 

On Definitions 

Remarks on Definitions 
Description 

Examples of Descriptions 

Subjects for Description 
Narrative 

Examples of Narrative 

Subjects for Narrative 
Letter-writing 

Specimens of Letters . 

Subjects for Letters . 
On Despatches and Reports 

Subjects for Despatches 

Reports 

Subjects for Reports 

Examination Questions on Part II. 



PART III. 

FORMS OF ARGUMENT. 



Arguments 

I. Enumeration . 
II. Contrast 

III. Explanation . 

IV. Cause and Effect (1.) 
IV. Cause and Effect (2.) 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



IV. Cause and Effect (3.) . 

Propositions (Facts), the Causes and Effect: 
to be added 

V. Experience . . - 

VI. History .... 

Propositions to be illustrated or proved by 
Historical Examples 
VII. General or universal Consent . 

Propositions proved by general or universal 
Consent . . . 

VIII. Proverbs .... 

Propositions to be illustrated by Proverbs 
IX. Sayings or Quotations . 
X. Analogy .... 

Propositions to be illustrated by Analogy 
XL Eables ..... 

Propositions to be supported by reference to 
Fables .... 
XII. Examples .... 

Propositions to be illustrated by Example 
XIII. Interrogation .... 

Propositions to be supported by Interroga 

tion .... 

Propositions to be maintained by several 
Arguments 
Examination Questions on Part III. . 



PAET IV. 

SUBJECTS. 



Subjects for Composition 
On Avarice 
Moral Subjects . 
I. On Anger 
II. On Idleness 
III. On Falsehood 



A 4 



VI 11 



CONTENTS. 



IV. On Pride 
V. On Contentment 

VI. On Affectation . 
VII. On Luxury 
VIII. On Pleasure . 
IX. On Mercy 
X. On Charity 
XL On Revenge 
XII. On Pear 
Intellectual Subjects 

I. On Knowledge 

II. On Order 

III. On Mathematics 

IV. On Reasoning . 

V. On Attention . 

VI. On Taste 

VII. On Learning . 
VIII. On Literary Criticism 

IX. On Science 
X. On Association . 
XL On Curiosity 
XII. On Philosophy . 
Literary Subjects 

I. On Literature . 
IL On History 

III. On Biography . 
IY. On Poetry 

V. On Language . 

VI. On the Greek and Latin Languages 

VII. On modern Languages 

VIII. On Versification 
IX. On Fables 

X. On Printing 
XL On Newspapers 
XII. On the Revival of Learning 
Practical Subjects 
I. On Money 
II. On Handwriting 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



III. On Reading aloud 

IV. On Exercise 
V. On Costume 

VI. On Reading for Improvement 
VII. On Commerce . 
VIII. On Travelling . 
IX. On Agriculture 
X. On good Humour 
XL On Manners 
XII. On Government 
List of general Subjects for Composition 
On Double Subjects 

List of Double Subjects • 



PART V. 



ON STYLE. 

On Style . 
Purity . 
Foreign Words . 
Obsolete Words 
New Words 
Grammatical Errors 
Errors in Pronouns 
Personal Pronouns 
The Relative Pronoun 
Inconsistencies in the Use of Pronouns 
Another and the other 
Errors in the Use of Verbs 
Errors in the Use of the Subjunctive . 
Errors in the Sequence of Moods and Tenses 
Errors in the Use of Participles 
Errors in the Use of Adjectives 
Inaccuracies in the Use of the Comparative and Su 

perlative 

Errors in the Use of Negative and Disjunctive Par 
tides . . . 



169 



CONTENTS. 





Page 


Foreign Idioms . . • 


. 170 


Propriety . 


. 174 


Impropriety in Words 


. 174 


Impropriety in Phrases 


. 177 


Common-place Expressions . 


. 180 


Obscurity from Ellipsis 


. 181 


Obscurity from wrong Arrangement . 


. 182 


Obscurity from using the same Word too fre 


quently, 


or in different Senses 


. 183 


Obscurity from uncertain Reference . 


. 185 


Obscurity arising from too artificial a Stru 


cture of 


Sentences . . . . 


. 185 


Obscurity from the Use of Technical Terms . 


. 187 


Obscurity arising from Double Meaning 


. 189 


The Unintelligible . 


. 190 


Precision .... 


. 191 


Tautology . 


. 193 


Pleonasm . 


. 196 


Examination Questions on Part V. 


. 197 


PART VI. 




ON SENTENCES. 




Sentences ..... 


. 200 


Simple Sentences 


. 201 


On Complex Sentences 


. 203 


Unity in Sentences . 


. 208 


Parentheses. 


. 213 


Strength in Sentences 


. 215 


Adjectives .... 


. 216 


Connectives 


. 217 


Important Words . 


. 218 


Insignificant Words 


. 219 


On Antithesis .... 


. 221 


Examples of Antithetical Sentences 


. 225 


Harmony in Sentences 


. 226 


Arrangement 


. 235 


Proportion .... 


. 237 


Examination Questions on Part VI. 


. 240 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



PAKT VII 

ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, 





Page 


Figurative Language . 


. 242 


Personification 


. 245 


Apostrophe .... 


. 246 


Hyperbole .... 


. 248 


On Comparison 


. 251 


On Metaphor . 


. 257 


Examples of forced Metaphors 


. 261 


On Figures connected with the Metaphor 


. 264 


On Allusion . . 


. 270 


On Climax .... 


. 271 


Anti-Climax .... 


. 273 


On Allegory . 


. 274 


Exercises in Figurative Language . 


. 279 


Examination Questions on Part VII. 


. 287 



PART VIII. 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 

Historical Sketch of the English Language . .289 
Saxon Period ..... 296 

Semi-Saxon Period (1066— 1250) . . . 300 

Period of Early English (a. d. 1250- 1350) . . 304 

Period of Middle English (a. d. 1350—1550) . 308 

Period of Modem English (a. d. 1550—1850, &c.) . 322 

The Nature and Genius of the English Language . 351 

"Words of Saxon Origin . . . .353 

Words of Norman-French Origin . . . 354 

Words derived from Greek . . . .355 

Words derived from Latin . . . .355 

Words of Italian Origin .... 355 

Arabic Words . . . . .356 

Dutch Words . . . . . .356 

Spanish Words . . . . .356 

Examination Questions on Part VIII. . .370 



DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 



As words are the materials of language, every course of 
this study should begin with an investigation of their 
nature and use. The various senses and applications of 
words are therefore the first lessons in the following pages. 

When the learner has acquired sufficient knowledge of 
this part of the subject, he should proceed to form pro- 
positions ; that is, to use words of a known meaning in 
writing simple assertions. This exercise should be con- 
tinued till an exact knowledge of the nature, parts, and 
forms of propositions has been attained, and the learner 
can write and explain them without difficulty. 

The three forms of the proposition being well under- 
stood, the next point for consideration is the study of sen- 
tences. Many beginners have no lack of ideas, but for 
want of practice in various forms of expression, they are 
often utterly at a loss. They have the thought, but have 
no power of expressing it. To remove this difficulty, it is 
an excellent practice to take some form of sentence from 
any standard writer, and, adopting it as a model, to write 
several sentences, similarly constructed, on a variety of 
subjects. These exercises on structures of sentences will 
give the learner facility of expression, and, if performed 



XIV DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

carefully, will soon relieve him from any difficulty under 
this head. 

The definition will next occupy his attention. It has 
been said, that even the best definitions are arbitrary, and 
that there are few of them to which some objection may 
not be raised. Though this may be true, it cannot, on the 
other hand, be denied that the practice of defining is very 
useful to the learner. It induces a desire of investigation ; 
gives him a habit of analysing — of endeavouring to discover 
every idea contained in any given single term, and, so far, 
is a very salutary discipline for the mind. It is not neces- 
sary, however, that this part of the study be too strongly 
insisted on, or that it occupy too much of the learner's 
time. At any future period of the course the practice of 
defining will be found useful as an occasional exercise. But 
the teacher should satisfy himself that the learner perfectly 
understands the cautions against errors in defining; that 
is, the reasons why certain forms of definition are inad- 
missible. 

The next division of the study is the subject of argument. 
With some this is a very formidable exercise. They have, 
comparatively, but little difficulty in expressing an opinion ; 
but when called upon to support it, they are frequently 
much puzzled. The various exercises on sources of argu- 
ment to which the reader is referred in Part III., will be of 
use to the learner in this particular, and, it is hoped, will 
assist in removing this obstacle to his progress. The teacher 
should be careful not to exact too much matter from a 
beginner. If a general assertion be supported by two or 
three sentences, the exercise should, at first, be considered 
sufficiently long. It is injudicious to discourage the 
learner. Some are very slow of perception, and have but 



DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. XV 

little natural power of invention ; and this is, no doubt, one 
cause why young people are generally so reluctant to study 
composition. Every means should be adopted which may 
give the beginner confidence in his own powers ; and the 
greatest care should be taken that his early exercises be 
not beyond his strength. 

Having gone through the exercises on arguments, the 
pupil will be then prepared to write on a subject. Here one 
should be selected which is suited to his particular powers ; a 
question which will naturally depend upon circumstances, and 
which must, consequently, be left to the teacher's discretion. 
It will be observed that these subjects (see Part IV.) are 
classified under various heads ; but it is not necessary that 
they should be written in the order in which they are ar- 
ranged in the book. As a general rule, it is better that 
the learner should not write too often on the same species 
of subject. He should vary from the moral to the literary, 
practical, or historical, and occasionally recur to a narrative, 
or a description. The variety of subject may relieve the 
study of some of its difficulty, and give encouragement to 
the learner. Practice in writing will also assist in showing 
him that the power of composing is not, as some imagine, a 
peculiar gift, bestowed only upon some few favoured mor- 
tals, but one which any one of common sense and ordinary 
understanding may acquire by steady and careful attention. 
It is recommended, however, that, at first, the proposed 
subject be discussed between the teacher and scholar before 
the latter make any attempt at composition. 

In every composition of the learner, it should be par- 
ticularly insisted on that none of its parts be wanting ; in 
other words, that there should be, in all cases, an intro- 
duction, an opinion, arguments in support of the opinion, 
and a conclusion. There may be cases in which especial 



XVI DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

difficulty will be found with some particular parts ; but on 
no account should the learner be allowed. to fall into the 
habit of producing an exercise deficient in any of them. 
He must be made to understand that in every piece of 
writing there should be the same proportion of parts as in 
any other piece of art, and that the absence of any one of 
these will give an imperfect and distorted effect to his com- 
position. Each of the numbered divisions (see Part IV. 
p. 121) is intended to furnish matter for a distinct para- 
graph, so that the paragraphs in every theme may equal in 
number those given in the sketch. The double subject is 
intended still further to exercise the learner's powers both 
of reasoning and expression. 

The other chapters in this work, on style, sentences, figu- 
rative language, &c, are to be read attentively by the 
pupil, and commented on by the teacher, the questions re- 
ferring to each division being made use of for this purpose. 



ENGLISH STYLE. 



PART L 

IDEAS, WORDS, AND PROPOSITIONS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

IDEAS. 

Every one knows that when he sees an object for 
the first time (suppose a horse or a stone), a certain 
impression is made on his mind by the sight of it.' 
The eye is the organ or instrument by which this 
communication is made between the object (here, the 
horse or the stone) and the mind. 

A similar effect takes place in the case of sound. 
An impression, different from the one above mentioned, 
is here also made, but through another medium, — viz., 
the ear. The barking of a dog, the notes of a melody, 
the moaning of the wind, the creaking of a door, &c, 
are among the means by which impressions of this 
kind are received. 

Just in the same way, and by similar means, im- 
pressions are conveyed to the mind through the organ 
of smelling. By bringing a sweet-scented flower 
within a certain distance of the nerves of the nose, 

B 



2 ENGLISH STYLE. 

scientifically called the olfactory, the mind is agreeably 
affected. 

The organ of taste, placed in the tongue and palate, 
enables us to distinguish between what is agreeable 
or disagreeable as an article of food ; and its functions 
are chiefly confined to such objects as are fit for our 
bodily nourishment. 

Different impressions, again, are conveyed by the 
sense of touching, which is not confined to any par- 
ticular organ, but is diffused over the whole body. 
The qualities heat, cold, roughness, smoothness, hard- 
ness, softness, &c, are conveyed to the mind through 
this channel. 

Of these various impressions, some are agreeable, 
and others the reverse ; but they are all made respec- 
tively, by the means above mentioned. It should also 
be observed, that in all of these cases, although the 
person affected must be in some communication with 
the object which causes the impression, the distance 
differs in the operation of the different senses. In 
the cases of touching and tasting, the objects must be 
in actual contact with the organs. In smelling, the 
effect may be produced by not quite so close a proxi- 
mity of the object. In hearing, it may be produced 
at a still greater distance ; whilst in seeing, we are 
brought into communication with objects many 
miles off. 

Now, the impressions thus made on the mind by 
means of the senses are called "ideas;" 1 so that by 

1 The English word " idea " comes from the Greek Idea, the 
form or external appearance of anything. The Greek word 
itself is a derivative from iSeiV, " to see ; " and in a philoso- 
phical sense signifies a mental representation of an object. 



WORDS. 6 

the "idea" of an object, or action, we understand 
simply the impression made by that object or action 
upon the mind. We must also remember that these 
impressions are not confined to the time in which 
they are making ; but that we have the power of 
recalling them at pleasure : thus, when we see a tree, 
hear a tune, or smell a flower, the ideas conveyed are 
not only impressed at the time, but can be brought 
back to our minds when the causes of them are no 
longer present. 

Words have been called " the signs of our ideas." 
By this is meant that a certain combination of letters, 
when pronounced or written, represents a certain 
idea for w T hich it has been agreed that it shall stand. 
But this agreement is only conventional — not ne- 
cessary : any other combination of letters, when once 
determined on, and universally accepted, would 
equally well answer the purpose. Indeed, this is 
obviously true, when we consider that the same com- 
bination of letters does not with all men represent 
the same idea. Thus it has been agreed upon in 
England, that a certain idea shall be represented by 
the word house. In France, however, the combi- 
nation which represents the same idea is maison ; in 
Italy, it is casa ; in Germany, Haus ; thus differing 
in different languages. 

But though words are signs, they are very imper- 
fect and incomplete signs of our ideas ; for they by 
no means describe extensively or accurately all the 
objects, actions, or qualities for which they stand. 
For example, the word tree will, when written or pro- 
nounced, recall a certain idea generally ; but neither 
particularly nor individually : it will bring to mind a 



4 ENGLISH STYLE. 

substance growing up out of the earth, and having a 
trunk, branches, and leaves ; but the word will, of 
itself, give us no information as to its height, size, 
colour, age, species, and many other particulars. 

Again, the term "good" conveys, generally, a 
favourable impression, but leaves us quite uninformed 
as to whether it refers to manners, skill, intellectual 
power, morality, or religion ; for the expression, " a 
good man" may mean a good (skilful) workman, a 
good (acute) logician, a good (kind) father, or a good 
(pious) Christian, &c. 

Lastly, the word strike gives us a general idea of 
a very common action ; but leaves us wholly in the 
dark as to the agent, degree, time, &c, of that action. 
All this information we must gather from other sources. 

Hence it will appear that words require analysing 
and explaining, and this from the very imperfection 
of their nature. Our ideas are, in fact, in a great 
majority of cases, complex ; that is, in the contem- 
plation of any object, action, or quality, the whole 
idea is made up of various parts, all of which cannot 
be described by the one word. 

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT TERMS. 

The most comprehensive classification of words is 
into concrete l and abstract. 2 

1 " Concrete," derived from the Latin concretus, literally 
signifies " united in growth." The word is applied to all those 
ideas which represent material substances, the particles of which 
are united so as to form a solid mass. 

2 " Abstract " is from the Latin abstractus, the participle of 
the verb ahstrahere, and literally means " drawn from." 



ABSTRACTION. 5 

Concrete ideas are those which first enter the mind, 
and they are derived either from material objects, 
external actions, or the qualities belonging to them ; 
that is, from such things as can be felt, actions seen, 
or qualities perceived by the senses. All words repre- 
senting such ideas are termed " concrete." The noun 
"man," the verb " strike," and the adjective " long," 
are commonly used in a concrete sense. 

ABSTRACTION. 

But the human mind has the power of taking away, 
or abstracting, any one quality from an object of 
sense, and considering it apart from all others which 
may belong to that object, or apart from the object 
itself. This faculty of the mind is called abstraction, 
and the ideas of the qualities thus drawn off (or ab- 
stracted) are called abstract. Thus, as above said, 
the word " man " is the general sign of a concrete 
idea; but if, in contemplating the object "man," we 
choose to consider his strength apart from all his 
other qualities; — or his grace alone — or his height 
alone, exclusively of all other considerations, we 
then abstract, or draw away, these qualities from 
the "man." The ideas of such qualities are called 
abstract ideas, and the words which represent them 
are called abstract. 

Exercise I. 

Copy out the words marked in italics in the fol- 
lowing sentences, putting all the concrete terms in 
one column, and all the abstract in another. 

b 3 



6 ENGLISH STYLE. 

The horse is an animal of great strength — What is 
the value of that watch? — The booh was elegantly 
bound in blue cloth — Julius Ccesar was noted for his 
generosity — The little boy's lameness hindered his 
walking as fast as his companions — I had an oppor- 
tunity of looking him steadily in the face — Industry 
and regularity are the surest means of wealth — The 
attitude of European affairs was then very threaten- 
ing — Immense and furious was the crowd of pursuers 

— The cardinal had attained to great eminence — He 
was an eloquent preacher, and his instructions were 
touching and impressive — He was, in every sense, 
the greatest sovereign of the age — This writer was 
the poet of the people — Virtue is its own reward. 

Exercise II. 

Change the words in italics in the following sen- 
tences into their corresponding abstract nouns. 

This difficult exercise puzzles me — Every one 
admired the learned man — The severe weather has 
made us ill — The long journey fatigued me — I was 
enchanted with the beautiful scenery — They were 
much pleased with his lively conversation — Persons 
of good taste prefer simple nature to embellished art 
— The whole party was saved by the brave soldiers 
— All are attracted by her modest deportment — The 
high tree was measured — He is a very strong man 

— These true words made a deep impression — They 
interrupted the merry party — It is necessary to be 
temperate — Nothing can be done without persevering 

— Not to know these things is shameful — The boy 
declared he was innocent — The proud man was 



GENERALISATION. 7 

humbled — This curious boy will be punished — To 
obey our superiors is commanded us — To be patient 
under misfortunes is extremely difficult — The bar- 
barous tyrant was detested — All admired the sublime 
poet — The humane governor was praised — To say 
nothing is often commendable — The boy showed 
himself grateful — I quite approve of your being hind 
to your companions — The mother expressed herself 
anxious about her children's welfare. 

GENERALISATION. 

There is another power of the mind connected with 
abstraction, which is yet to be distinguished from it ; 
viz., generalisation. These two terms are often con- 
founded, and it is therefore of consequence that we 
should understand the difference between them. 
Generalisation depends upon abstraction ; for, with- 
out the latter the former could not be performed. 
For example, when in thinking on any one object, 
such as a tree, we consider it as regards its age 
alone, or its height, or form, or any other of its 
qualities, in each and all of these cases we perform 
abstraction. 

But when any one, contemplating a number of in- 
dividual objects, observes that they all possess certain 
qualities in common, and, in consequence of this 
observation, he gives them a name which applies 
equally to them all — this is to generalise. 1 

1 " Generalisation " is derived from the Latin generate ; and 
this again from genus, a class. To generalise is to reduce par- 
ticulars to their genera, or classes. 

B 4 



8 ENGLISH STYLE. 

In abstraction, we contemplate but one quality of 
an object at a time, excluding for that time the con- 
sideration of all its other qualities. In generalising, 
we contemplate several objects together, and observ- 
ing that they all agree in certain particulars, we 
make a class (or genus) of them, and call them all by 
the same name. It is then evident that we can 
abstract without generalising, but that we cannot 
generalise without abstracting. 

COMMON NAMES. 

It is upon this principle that are formed what are 
called common terms, or, in grammar, common nouns. 
In consequence of their agreeing in a certain number 
of particulars (or having certain qualities in common) 
a large class of objects received the same name. 
Thus, when we meet with a building constructed 
with walls, and having a roof to shelter its inmates 
from the inclemency of the weather, we call such a 
thing "a house," without attending to the almost 
infinite variety which is well known to exist among 
such objects. For though we all know that no two 
houses agree in every particular, as long as they are 
found to agree in a certain number of circumstances, 
they will all be called by the same general term — 
house. Now, it is clear that this process of generali- 
sation could not have been performed without the 
power of abstraction ; for it is in consequence of 
abstracting, in each case, the same qualities from 
these objects, that we find them to agree in possessing 
such qualities. 



PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SENSES. 9 

PROPER NAMES. 

Proper names, on the other hand, are applied, not 
to a class or number of objects agreeing in certain 
particulars, but to single individuals. Whenever I 
meet with a large stream of water flowing into a sea 
or lake, I call such an object a " river," because it 
agrees in these particulars with a large class of 
things. But if I wish to designate that individual 
river which flows by London, and falls into the 
German Ocean, I must apply the term Thames. The 
use of this, and of all other proper names, is to dis- 
tinguish an individual object from all others of its 
class. 

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SENSES. 

Most words may be used in two, and some in three 
senses ; but in all cases there is a connection between 
the first or primary meaning, and the secondary 
signification. These senses may be classed as 
primary (or concrete), and secondary (abstract, or 
metaphorical). Some English words, however, are 
not found in a secondary sense, and others have only 
an abstract signification, having lost their original 
concrete sense. Lastly, some words are used in two 
senses, both concrete. For example, the word 
11 head," in the expression u my head aches," is used 
in its original concrete sense. In the sentence, 
u The boy is at the head of his class," it has a 
secondary, abstract meaning ; whereas, in the line, 
" The mountain lifts his head above the storm," it 
is applied in a metaphorical sense. 



10 ENGLISH STYLE. 



Exercise III. 



Take out the words in italics in the following 
sentences, and explain in what sense they are respec- 
tively used. 

He was moved to tears — The waters subsided 
— There is a rise in the price of bread — The patient 
was too ill to be moved — The leaves were agitated 
by the wind — The mother kissed her child — "The 
wind did kiss the trees" — The master threatened to 
dismiss the apprentice — The clouds threaten rain 
— The army advanced into the heart of the country — 
My uncle was agitated at this news — He was a 
steady boy — My cousin is quick at learning — This 
happened in the course of yesterday afternoon — He 
was eager in the pursuit of literature — The horse 
ran over the course — My brother is much advanced 
in his studies — He was killed in the pursuit of the 
French from Waterloo. 



Many words are used in two senses, both concrete ; 
the one, however, derived from the other : for 
example, — 

Primary. Secondary. 



He had not the free use of 
his hand. 

The boy hurt his foot. 



The minute-^awc? of my 
watch is broken. 
He sat at the foot of the tree. 



In the first column, the words hand and foot are 
used in their primary sense ; in the second, they are 
applied in a secondary, but yet a concrete, signifi- 
cation. 



ANALOGY. 



11 



Exercise IV. 

Use each of the following words in two senses, in 

separate sentences, similar to the examples above 

given. 

roof 

leaf 

leg 

eye 

wing 

face 



Use the following words in two senses : — 1st, a 
concrete, and 2nd, an abstract sense : for example, — 



heart mouth 


side 


back arm 


volume 


brow branch 


table 


lip chest 


blade 


neck bed 


body. 


tooth drum 




Exercise V. 





Concrete. 



Abstract 



The boy's wound was in- 


The orator irtj 


flamed the ] 


timed* 




pulace. 




The men reaped 


the corn. 


They reaped 
their industry. 


the fruits 


reflect 


sound 


see 


shine 


field 


stroke 


w r armth 


brilliant 


stain 


feel 


burn 


bury 


sweet 


ripe 


bitter 


polished 


sharpen 


revive 


elevated 


deep 


strong 


view 


conceal 


support. 




ANAL 


OGY. 1 





of 



It maybe useful and interesting to inquire into 
the cause of this secondary meaning of words, — how 
it happened that they acquired a new meaning 
distinct from their original sense, and yet, in a 
certain way, derived from it. The phenomenon may 
be thus explained. It depends upon, and may be 

1 The word " analogy" is derived from the Greek verb 
avax(yu), " I gather up, or consider together." Analogy is the 
power of collecting and comparing relations. 



12 ENGLISH STYLE. 

attributed to, a principle called analogy. This term 
refers to a certain power of the mind, by which we 
compare ideas resembling each other, not in all, but 
only in some respects, or in the relation they bear to 
other ideas. When we use the word " move," in its 
original meaning, it signifies to cause some body to 
change its position ; as when we say, " the stone was 
moved? But when we say that " such a one was 
moved to tears by this news," the meaning of the 
word is secondary. The change implied in the first 
sense does not, in the second, refer to external matter, 
but to internal feeling. There is here an analogy 
or a comparison, as regards circumstances. The 
power applied in the first case holds the same relation 
to the stone that the news received, in the second, 

Exercise VI. 

Explain in writing the analogies by which the 
words in the list under Exercise IV. came to be used in 
a secondary sense ; somewhat in the following manner. 

Example. 

The word " leg," in its original and literal sense, 
signifies the limb which assists in sustaining the 
weight of the body. But this term is also applied, in 
a secondary sense, to those parts of mechanical con- 
trivances which perform a similar office. Thus, we 
speak of the " leg " of a chair, table, or stool ; and in 
all these cases, the leg stands in the same relation to 
the chair, table, &c, as the leg of an animal does to 
its body. 



PROPOSITIONS. 13 



PROPOSITIONS. 



Words, taken singly, express ideas ; but in order 
to think, we must put ideas together. A thing is 
derived from to think; it is, in fact, whatever makes 
us think ; and it is pretty clear that, were there no 
things, we could not think. 

Therefore, whenever we think, we must think about 
some thing or person. 

This thing, or person, is called the subject of our 
thought. 1 

Whatever we say (or write) about the subject is 
called the predicate (which means " what is declared 
or asserted "). 2 

But it is necessary to show that this predicate be- 
longs to the subject ; and for this purpose the copula 
is used. 3 

The word " copula," means a link or chain, It is, 
really, always some part of the verb " to be," and it is 
employed to join the predicate to the subject. 

These three parts, the subject, copula, and predicate, 
when put together, form a proposition 4 , a word which 
means " an opinion laid doivn" for example : — 

1 4; Subject " comes from the Latin subjacere, " to cast, or put 
down." The word here means whatever is "put down," con- 
cerning which an assertion is to be made. 

- " Predicate " is derived from prcedicare, " to speak out, or 
proclaim." 

3 Copula, the Latin for a tie or band ; from copulare, " to 
couple." 

4 The term "proposition " is from the Latin propon ere ; com- 
posed of pro, before, and ponere, to place. It is an affirmation 
" placed before " us, or laid down for our consideration, 



14 ENGLISH STYLE. 

subj. cop. pred. 

1. The Grass is green (a proposition). 

subj. c. pred. 

2. The dog barks (a proposition). 

subj. cop. pred. 

3. The pen was mended (a proposition). 

In the first of these propositions, the subject is 
" grass ; " the predicate green (what is declared of 
grass) ; and the copula, is, holds them together. 

In the second, the dog is the subject ; and barks is 
both the copula and the predicate ; for it not only 
asserts something of the dog, but also shows that he 
exists or " is." 

In the third, the pen is the subject ; was the copula ; 
and mended the predicate. 

Propositions are of three kinds: 1. Enunciative. 
2. Active, and 3. Passive. 

1. A proposition is enunciative when the predicate 
expresses the mere state or condition of the subject. 

2. A proposition is active when the subject is 
represented as doing something. 

3. A proposition is passive when the subject is re- 
presented as acted on, or having something done to it. 

Of the above propositions, " grass is green " is 
an enunciative form : it simply declares that the 
subject (grass) is in a certain condition expressed by 
the predicate (green) ; but it does not assert that the 
subject either acts or is acted on. 

The second is an active form of proposition ; for it 
declares that the subject (the dog) does something 
(barks). 

The third is a passive form : it shows that the 
subject (the pen) received an action, or had something 
done to it (mended). 



PROPOSITIONS. 15 



Exercise VII. 

State to which of these three forms the following 
propositions belong. 

The boy is attentive — The chair was broken — He 
writes — The girl is clever — The affair was settled 

— This is an excellent work — I am much pleased — 
The man refused to help us — She is in a hurry — 
Cassar was an illustrious general — The woman de- 
serves great praise — You have made a mistake 

— The passage was made in ten days — The ge- 
neral marched against the enemy — She has great 
discretion — The account was published — Leonidas 
was a hero — The child cries — This affair is of 
no importance — This writer achieved a vast repu- 
tation — Justice is the queen of virtues — Louis 
XII. was called the father of his people — All were 
invited to subscribe — The best portion of this work 
is the introduction — The colouring is gaudy — His 
style is wonderfully concise — Patriotism is the 
source of his inspiration — This picture of emigrant 
life is graphic and impressive — The book is well 
executed, and to younger readers we can recommend 
it as a work which they will be glad to add to their 
libraries. 

Exercise VIII. 

Write eighteen propositions, consisting only of their 
three parts ; viz., the subject, copula, and predicate : — 
six of them to be enunciative, six . active, and six 
passive, like the following examples : — 



16 ENGLISH STYLE. 



Enunciative. 



The paintings are beautiful. 
This garden is large. 
The streets are wet. 



His mother will be angry. 
My aunt was kind. 
The night is dark. 



Active. Passive. 



The women exclaimed. 

The boys were talking. 

I was reading. 

He wrote a letter. 

The man shivered. 

The master had explained. 



The book was hidden. 

The question will be discussed. 

The bread is baked. 

The snow was melted. 

The houses were built. 

They will be protected. 



COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 

Subjects of propositions often consist of several 
words, as " To rise early is conducive to health." 
Here the subject is not " to rise," but to "rise early." 

Exercise IX. 

Use the following expressions as subjects of propo- 
sitions. 

To be just in all our dealings — To compose ele- 
gantly — The habit of writing — To combat his ar- 
guments — Walking before breakfast — Sketching from 
Nature — To play without quarrelling — To write a 
foreign language accurately— A friend of mine — One 
of the noblest of Christian virtues— -All the ship's 
guns — The companions of our childhood — Some 
of his adherents — This glorious news — Very accu- 
rate experiments — King John of France — The habit 
of reading by candle-light — Collecting antiquities — 
These sensible remarks — Persons born deaf — Many 
well-known specimens of this sort of literature — The 
best way to succeed. 



COMPLEMENTS. 17 

COMPOUND PREDICATES. 

Predicates of propositions also are frequently not 
expressed by a single term, but consist of several 
words, as : " The affair is of importance" 

Exercise X. 

Use the following expressions as predicates of 
propositions. 

At home — Not far off — In the garden — A state 
of pilgrimage — Wrapped in his cloak — Quite aware 
of his purpose — Not much better — Plunged in a 
deep reverie — Far from being of the same opinion 
-Under the necessity of refusing — In good health 
- Wholly without assistance — in great fear of the 
consequences — A man of reserved habits — In doubt 
as to the result — In a terrible passion — Unequal to 
the task — In great confusion — In considerable 
danger. 

COMPLEMENTS. 1 

All expressions which are added to a proposition 
are called its complements. 

The word " complement " means that which fills up, 
or completes, the sense of a proposition. 

In the proposition, " The boy was reproved," the 
sense is perfectly intelligible ; but when we say, "The 
idle boy was sternly reproved by his master" we have 
much fuller information ; for the sort of boy, the 
manner of the reproof, and the person who reproved, 

1 " Complement " is derived from the Latin verb complere, " to 
fill up or complete." 

C 



18 ENGLISH STYLE. 

are all made known to us. It will then be understood 
that when we have discovered the subject, copula, and 
predicate, in sentences containing but one proposition, 
all the other words or expressions in that sentence 
are complements to that proposition. 

Exercise XL 

Copy out the following sentences, and point out all 
their parts, thus — 

complement. subject. complement. 



(Last night), the old tree (at the bottom of our garden) 
cop. predicate. complement. 

rf^ i " . t ; A . 

was blown down (by the violence of the w T ind). 

Music and song were early cultivated among the 
Hebrews. Fables are undoubtedly of great antiquity. 
During this age, poetry was feeble and mechanical. 
Cicero's moral character was never blemished by the 
stain of any habitual vice. As a step towards this 
end, Wallenstein now dem%nded the cession of Meck- 
lenburgh. Both Badajoz and San Sebastian were set 
on fire by their French garrisons, as a means of de- 
fence. That work must have been very tedious for 
one man to execute. Their proficiency excited uni- 
versal admiration. I have before referred to this 
custom. The same thing was enjoined by the council 
of Pavia. There is another point referred to in this 
extract. The custom of reading at meals was not 
exclusively monastic. 

Classification of Complements. 
Complements may be classified as referring to 



COMPLEMENTS. 19 

circumstance, time, place, manner, object, agent, 
person, qualification, intention, thus : — 

1. Of circumstance ; as, " Though surrounded with 
difficulties, the king effected his escape." 

2. Of time; as, " The Norman Conquest of England 
took place about the middle of the eleventh century" 

3. Of place; as, "A revolution broke out in France" 

4. Of manner ; as, " The governor read the procla- 
mation with a calm and steady voice" 

5. Of the object; as, "He determined to investigate 
this matter" 

6. Of the agent; as, " The book was brought home 
by the printer s boy" 

7. Of the person; as, "John gave his brother a 
penknife, as a New Year's gift/' 

8. Of qualification ; as, " The contented man is 
happy/' 

9. Of intention ; as, " I went out to purchase some 
boohs" 

Explanation. 

In No. 1. of the above propositions, the expression 
" though surrounded with difficulties " shows the cir- 
cumstances in which the king was when he effected 
his escape. 

In No. 2. " about the middle of the eleventh cen- 
tury " informs us of the time when the Conquest took 
place. 

In No. 3. " in France " expresses the place where 
the revolution in question broke out. 

In No. 4. " with a calm and steady voice " shows 
the manner in which the proclamation was read. 
c 2 



20 ENGLISH STYLE. 

In No. 5. " to investigate the matter " is the object 
of his determination. 1 

In No. 6. " by the printer's boy " shows the agent 
or person who acted on the occasion. 1 

In No. 7. " his brother " expresses the person re- 
ceiving the object of the verb. 

In No. 8. the term " contented " qualifies the sub- 
ject "man," 

In No. 9. the expression "to purchase some 
books " shows the intention with which I went out. 

Exercise XII. 
Complements of Circumstance, 
Let the learner use the following complements of 
circumstance in propositions of his own composing. 

Having settled this matter to our satisfaction — 
Being in doubt as to the result — In the deepest an- 
guish of mind — Full of hope — Tormented with 
raging thirst — Being well acquainted with the sub- 
ject — Being ignorant of his rank and condition — 
Without the means of procuring food for his children 
— The inmates of the house being in a deep sleep — 
Speaking the language fluently — In this dreadful 
emergency — Thus situated — Having received no 
tidings of their friend, &c. 

Exercise XIII. 
Complements of Time, 
The following complements of time are to be intro- 
duced into propositions of the learner's composing. 

1 The complement of the object can be used only after an 
active, and the complement of the agent only after a passive 
form, of proposition. 



COMPLEMENTS. 21 

Next morning — Last night — In the course of the 
week — Before the end of the holidays — In the tenth 
century — To-morrow afternoon — On my arrival at 
the inn — In all my life — During the ceremony — 
After breakfast — The next day — On the meeting of 
Parliament — Before the beginning of spring — 
During the summer months — On the first of Sep- 
tember, &c. 

Exercise XIV. 
Complements of Place. 
Use the following complements of place in written 
propositions. 

In the Northern parts of Europe — Not far from 
the house — At the foot of the mountain — In the bed 
of the river — Close to the fountain — Seated in an 
arbour — Near the town — In a corner of the library 

— At some distance from the village — In this coun- 
try — Five miles further on — Outside the walls — 
Within the city — In the Southern States of America 

— Beyond this point — In many provinces — On the 
equator — In this spot, &c. 

Exercise XV. 
Complements of Manner. 
Introduce the following complements of manner 
into propositions. 

With the greatest kindness — In a haughty tone — 
With the utmost caution — - In a conciliating spirit — 
Very politely — With violence — With great re- 
luctance — By degrees — With expression — In an 
audible voice — Unconsciously — In silence — With a 
c 3 



22 ENGLISH STYLE. 

hearty appetite — Providentially — In the same way 
— By these means — In this manner — Without 
doubt — Without difficulty — Universally — Without 
delay. 

Exercise XVI. 

Complements of the Object 1 

Use the following complements of the object in writ- 
ten propositions. 

To obtain a view of the palace — Large manufac- 
tories — Many works on the subject — To improve his 
mind — Every member of the family — The enemy's 
forces — This difficult question — Many histories — A 
large library — To undertake the expedition — His 
father's long letter — The cause of the clergy — The 
power of steam — The hand of Providence — To lose 
no time — A large fortune — The first page of that 
book, &c. 

Exercise XVII. 

Complements of the Agent 2 

The following complements of the agent are to be 
used in written propositions, as in the above exer- 
cises. 

By the violence of the wind — By my uncle's man- 
servant — By the executors of the estate — By four 
beautiful horses — By the speaker — By my youngest 
sister — By a celebrated artist — By all the clerks — 
By most of the inhabitants — By the cattle — By the 

1 As the complement of the object can be used only after the 
active form, all the propositions of this exercise must he active. 

2 All the propositions in Exercise XVII. must be passive. 



COMPLEMENTS. 23 

best authors — By a skilful workman — By the coun- 
cil of the nation — By the railway directors — By a 
large Newfoundland dog — By my cousin, &c. 

Exercise XVIII. 
Complements of the Person. 1 

Use the following complements of the person in 
written propositions. 

To my friend — For the workmen — His brother — 
To his agent — All his supporters — The public — The 
school-boys — For the master — The patient — To the 
messenger — The traveller — The weary soldier — For 
the stranger — To his children — For himself — To the 
admiral of the channel fleet — The landlord — To his 
fellow-townsmen — To all the shopkeepers in the 
town — To his father, &c. 

Exercise XIX. 

Add to the following given propositions, comple- 
ments of time, place, person, or object. 

Example. 

(comp. time.) subject. cop. pred. comp. per. 

At that moment, the captain commanded (his men) 
comp. object. 



(to charge the enemy). 

The king ordered — The mother told — The master 
desired— My friend bought — He wished — His 

1 The complement of the person (receiving) is mostly used 
after verbs signifying to give or to tell : as, offer, present, send, 
inform, mention, write, buy, purchase, relate, &c. 

C 4 



24 ENGLISH STYLE. 

daughter related — His brother informed — The prince 
conferred — The magistrate spoke — The witness 
gave — The gentleman sent — They mentioned — The 
servant brought — The carrier took — The man pre- 
sented — My sister will write — The general com- 
manded, &c. 



Exercise XX. 

To the following given propositions add comple- 
ments of circumstance, manner, place, or agent, &c. 

Example. 

complement of circumstance. subject. cop. 

(In this disturbed state of affairs,) the coasts were 
comp. man. predic. complement of place, 

(strictly) guarded (in every part of the island) 

complement agent, 
(by large bodies of soldiery). 






A messenger was despatched — ■ The proclamation 
was read — The ships were towed — Bread is sold — 
A letter will be sent — A communication was made — 
A sermon was preached — The way was cleared — 
The doctor was consulted — A fire was lighted — The 
tree was felled — The Exhibition was opened — The 
prisoner was locked up — The dinner was served — 
Coals are bought — The pen was mended — The 
country was inundated — The dinner was served — 
The room will be papered — Some visitors were an- 
nounced, &c. 






COMPLEMENTARY PROPOSITIONS. 25 

COMPLEMENTARY PROPOSITIONS. 

Propositions used as Complements. 

Propositions themselves are often used as comple- 
ments. In this view, they may be considered as 
1. Introductory ; 2. Determinative; and 3. Explana- 
tory. 

Examples. 

comp. proposition. 
1. After he had examined the witnesses, 
principal proposition. 



the magistrate remanded the prisoner for a week, 
principal prop. comp. prop. 

2. He showed me the books you spoke of. 

prin. complementary proposition. 

3. The sun, ivhich had been obscured during the 

proposition. 

whole morning, now burst forth with unusual 
splendour. 

Explanation. 

In the first of the above sentences, the leading pro- 
position is " the magistrate remanded ; " and the com- 
plementary proposition, introductory to the principal, 
is " he had examined." 

In the second sentence, the proposition " you spoke 
of" determines the books in question, and is therefore 
called determinative. 

In the third, " the sun burst forth " is the prin- 
cipal ; and " which had been obscured," inserted 



26 ENGLISH STYLE. 

between its parts, explains something connected with 
the other proposition. 

Exercise XXL 

The learner is required to point out the principal 
and the complementary propositions in the following 
sentences ; also, to distinguish between the deter- 
minative and the explanatory forms in each of them. 

ANALYSIS. 

Forms of Sentences. 

1. Soon after we arrived here, a report was spread 
that the duke and his suite were daily expected. 

2. No one can conceive with what pleasure I re- 
visited these scenes. 

3. The district where most of their town-houses 
stood lies between the city and the regions which are 
now considered as fashionable. 

4. When the lands of the vanquished people were 
at length divided, the nobles despised the subjects too 
much to court their assistance in periods of danger. 

5. How far this change ought to be lamented is 
not now a point of great dispute. 

6. The Roman laws, though corrupted, were, in 
general, the best that human wisdom had framed. 

7. The Roman arts and literature, though they had 
greatly declined, were still superior to anything found 
among rude nations. 

8. The first London Coffee-house was set up, in 
the time of the Commonwealth, by a Turkey mer- 
chant, who had acquired among the Mahometans a 
taste for their favourite beverage. 



ANALYSIS. 27 

9. All Europe had shuddered at the atrocious and 
prolonged cruelty with which Damiens, who had 
attempted the life of Louis in 1757, was executed. 

10. The proud spirit of Charles could not submit 
to a rigour that had never been exercised against any 
of his predecessors. 

11. The future proceedings of the parliament, if a 
fanatical junto entirely under the direction of the 
army can deserve that honourable name, were worthy 
of the members who composed it. 

12. But while this monarch persecuted the French 
Protestants, in opposition to all the principles of 
humanity and sound policy, he was no dupe to the 
Court of Rome. 

FORMS OF SENTENCES FOR IMITATION. 

Exercise XXII. 

The learner is to write sentences constructed like 
the following models : — 

FIRST MODEL. 

[Subject qualified — passive proposition — time — place 
— agent] 

Examples. 

1. This beautiful nosegay was bought in Covent 
Garden yesterday afternoon by my brother. 

2. The art of printing was invented in Germany, 
about the year 1445, by Guttemberg of Mainz. 

3. A great sensation was produced in the House of 
Commons last night, by the speech of a new member, 
&c. 



28 ENGLISH STYLE. 

SECOND MODEL. 

[A passive, followed by an active proposition (a 
consequence of the former), the two connected by the 
words " so " or " such," and " that."] 

Examples. 

1. The king was so displeased with this conduct of 
the parliament, that he refused positively to give his 
consent to the Bill. 

2. The town was defended with such vigour by the 
inhabitants, that the hostile army soon abandoned the 
enterprise in despair. 

3. Their cause was pleaded so eloquently by the 
advocate, that the prisoners felt sure of their imme- 
diate acquittal. 

THIRD MODEL. 

[Principal subject (inserted complementary expla- 
natory proposition), principal copula and predicate 
||conjunction||, second proposition (subject understood), 
complement, &c] 

Examples. 

1. The young marquis, who had been entered at 
King's College, Cambridge, was seized with the small- 
pox, and died at the early age of sixteen. 

2. This terrible disaster, which filled the whole 
nation with alarm, was after all productive of no 
serious consequences, and served but to render the 
government more on the alert for the future. 

3. The war, which had been protracted to an 
unusual length, languished for a few years longer, 
and was at length brought to a close by the Treaty 
of Westphalia. 



FORMS OF SENTENCES. 29 

Exercise XXIII. 

The following models are to be imitated in sen- 
tences of the pupil's construction : — 

FOURTH MODEL. 

[An impersonal passive form, beginning with " it " 
or " there ; " — the conjunction " that," followed by a 
second proposition (subject expressed).] 

Examples, 

1. It has been often remarked, that there is gene- 
rally a wide difference between the principles and the 
practice even of the best men. 

2. There is no doubt that the adoption of this 
plan would have eventually secured success. 

3. It is of the greatest importance that we contract 
our desires to our condition ; and, whatever may be 
our expectations, that we should live within the 
compass of what we actually possess. 

FIFTH MODEL. 

[Two propositions connected by the conjunction 
u and," the second being a consequence of the first, 
and having a different subject.] 

Examples. 

1. The Marquis of Newcastle, by his extensive 
influence, had raised a considerable force for the 
king, and high hopes were entertained of success, 
from the known loyalty and abilities of that noble- 
man. 

2. Fears were now entertained for the safety of the 
party, and an expedition was fitted out at the expense 



i 



30 ENGLISH STYLE. 

of government, to go in search of the missing navi- 
gators. 

3. The Spanish commerce, so profitable to England, 
was cut off, and a great number of vessels fell into 
the hands of the enemy. 

SIXTH MODEL. 

[1. An. introductory proposition (a concession) ; 
2. a second proposition (an opinion).] 

Examples, 

1. Though it would be folly to deny the great 
talent which the writer has displayed in this work, I 
am still of opinion that he has utterly failed to 
establish his theory. 

2. However great may be the difficulties to be 
encountered in this undertaking, you may rest 
assured that they are not insuperable. 

3. Whatever opinion we may entertain of the 
power of his intellect, no one will venture to assert 
that he has a strong claim on our respect on the 
score of his morality. 

Exercise XXIV. 

SEVENTH MODEL. 

[Subject — inserted relative clause — copula and pre- 
dicate, complement ; — a second proposition expressing 
intention, coupled to the first by the words " that," 
or " in order that."] 

Examples, 

1. The people, who had long been clamouring for 
war, organised meetings in all parts of the country, 



FORMS OF SENTENCES. 31 

in order that the public opinion might be clearly 
expressed upon the subject. 

2. The magistrate, who had a strong suspicion of 
the prisoner's guilt, deferred the examination till the 
next day, that the police might have more time to 
collect evidence against him. 

3. The minister, who had received secret infor- 
mation of the plot during the night, commanded that 
the houses of the principal conspirators should be 
watched, in order that their persons should be 
arrested on the first opportunity. 

EIGHTH MODEL. 

[Two propositions, the second being an inference 
drawn from the first, each having an adjective of the 
comparative form, preceded by "the."! 

Examples. 

1. The more we allow indolence to take possession 
of the soul, the more likely are we to fall into innu- 
merable vices. 

2. The older we grow, the more anxiously should 
we endeavour to fulfil our duties. 

3. The longer he remains in such depraved society, 
the more contaminated will he become, and the less 
able to rid himself of these pernicious habits. 

NINTH MODEL. 

[The antithetical sentence. Two propositions, the 
second of which is in contrast with the first.] 

Examples. 
1. The brighter hues of colours represent cheerful 
states of the mind ; whilst the graver or more serious 



32 ENGLISH STYLE. 

feelings of our nature may be said to resemble those 
of a deeper cast. 

2. The rapid torrent, or boiling whirlpool, naturally 
suggests the idea of furious rage ; the placid lake, or 
gliding stream, gentleness of disposition. 

3. Yesterday all was bright and beautiful ; to-day 
all is dark and dreary, &c. 

Exercise XXV. 

The following are models for imitation, like those 
above given : — 

TENTH MODEL. 

[Several concessions or admissions, — a conclusion.] 

Examples, 

1. If his moral character be as good as it is repre- 
sented — if it be proved that his habits are such as 
will recommend him to this office — and if his know- 
ledge of the subject be sufficiently extensive and accu- 
rate — there is every reason to expect that his appli- 
cation will be successful. 

2. If the weather should prove fine — if your uncle 
arrive in time — and if the whole party be in good 
health, we shall probably start for the Continent on 
the twelfth of next month. 

3. Fully admitting the power of his eloquence, and 
aware of the extensive knowledge of the subject dis- 
played in his speech, I am still unconvinced by his 
arguments, and my opinion on this question remains 
unaltered, &c. 



FORMS OF SENTENCES. 33 

ELEVENTH MODEL. 

The explanatory sentence — a proposition followed 
by others, explaining its meaning. 

Examples, 

1. Every station has its duties ; from the prince 
to the peasant, we are all responsible for our actions ; 
and though our duties differ in the different relations 
of life, there is no condition exempt from them. 

2. Nature does nothing in vain ; the Creator has 
appointed everything to a certain use and purpose, 
and determined it to a settled course and sphere of 
action, from which if it in the least deviates, it be- 
comes unfit to answer those ends for which it was 
designed. 

3. Shakspere had not the advantage of high birth ; 
he came to London a needy adventurer, and lived for 
a time by very mean employments, &c. 

TWELFTH MODEL. 

The negative sentence : — several negative propo- 
sitions ; the second, third, &c, explanatory of the 
first. 

Examples. 

1. Never had the nation been so prosperous ; never 
had the middle classes of society been more thriving, 
or the poor more free from the pressure of privation. 

2. No longer do we now perceive the former ardour 
of the Romans ; no longer do we meet with that 
firmness in danger, and constancy under reverses, 
which had for so many ages characterised that extra- 
ordinary people. 



34 ENGLISH STYLE. 

3. Nothing could have been more ingeniously con- 
trived than this plan ; nothing better calculated to 
conciliate all parties, and effect the end which its ori- 
ginator had in view. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PART I. 

1. What is an idea? 

2. By what means are ideas originally conveyed to the mind ? 

3. What is a word ? 

4. Do words, of necessity, represent ideas ? 

5. In what respect are words imperfect ? 

6. Give some examples of words having a variety of meanings. 

7. What mean the terms " concrete " and " abstract ? " 

8. Explain the power of the mind called " abstraction." 

9. What is meant by " generalisation ? " 

10. Upon what principle are some nouns called "common" in 

grammar ? 

11. What is the use of proper nouns ? 

12. Show the difference between the primary and the secondary 

meaning of a word. 

13. Explain the principle of analogy. 

14. Whence is the noun " thing " derived ? 

15. What is a proposition ? 

1 6. Of how many, and what parts does a proposition consist ? 

17. Explain the meaning of the terms " subject," " copula," and 

" predicate," as applied to a proposition. 

18. Of how many kinds are propositions ? 

19. Explain these forms. 

20. How may "subjects " be expressed ? 

21. What is meant by the term "complement," as applied to a 

proposition ? 

22. Mention some forms of complements. 

23. What are complementary propositions ? 

24 v How may complementary propositions be classified ? 
25. How does a determinative differ from an explanatory pro- 
position ? 



35 



PART II. 



DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTION, NARRATIVE, 

ETC. 



ON DEFINITIONS, 1 

A definition is the explanation of a word according 
to certain principles. 

Every definition consists of three parts : 1. the 
subject ; 2. the genus ; and 3. the species. 

1. The subject is the word to be defined. 

2. The genus shows to what class of beings or things 
the subject belongs. 

3. The species shows how the subject differs from 
others of the same genus, thus : 

subject. genus. species. 

(Justice) is (the virtue) (of givingto every man his due.) 

Here "justice" is the subject defined: the word 
" virtue " is the genus, that is, it shows to what class 

1 The word "definition" is derived from the Latin verb 
definire, which signifies to lay down the boundary or extent of 
the meaning of a word. 

D 2 



36 ENGLISH STYLE. 

of things the subject, "justice," belongs : and lastly, "of 
giving to every man his due" expresses the species 
of that genus ; it specifies the virtue, and shows how 
this virtue (justice) differs from other virtues. 

The learner must here be cautioned against several 
errors into which he is likely to fall in writing 
definitions. 

1. Never define by a single term. 

As every definition must consist of three parts, and 
as defining a subject by a single term will give but 
two, to do so is obviously an error. Besides ; it may 
be laid down as a principle that no one word will ever 
define another. Thus, to say that " courage is forti- 
tude " would be wrong ; for though these terms are 
very like each other in meaning, they are not identical. 

2. Never define by a negative. 

The reason why a negative definition is faulty, is 
that in such a case the required information is not 
given ; as when one would say "courage is not cow- 
ardice," or "joy is not sorrow," we are in no way 
enlightened as to the nature of these subjects ; we are 
told what they are not, and not what they are ; hence, 
such a form of definition is faulty and unsatisfactory. 

3. Never define by a derivative. 

It is obviously wrong to use a derivative from the 
subject in the definition % for, as the object of a defini- 
tion is to inform, we clearly defeat our purpose by 
employing terms of the same etymology as the subject 
itself. Whoever wishes for a definition of the term 
" malice," will not gain his end by hearing that it is 
" a malicious feeling." Again, to define history as 
1 an historical account of a nation," would be open to 
the same objection. 



DEFINITIONS. 37 

4. Take care that the definition be neither too ex- 
tensive nor too narrow. 

If any one should define a horse as " a swift-run- 
ning quadruped," this definition would be too exten- 
sive ; as there are many other swift-running quadrupeds, 
and we might thus confound a horse with a zebra, 
hare, or fox. Again, if we define a fish as " an animal 
that has an air-bladder," this would be too narrow a 
definition, since many fish are without them. 

5. Do not confound an opinion with a definition. 
Many learners fall into this error ; they forget that 

the purpose in defining is to explain the nature of the 
subject ; and instead of so doing, they make some 
assertion, or express an opinion, about it. Thus, it is 
wrong to suppose that " history is a useful study," 
or " patience is a desirable virtue," &c, is a definition. 
Lastly, it must be remembered that the terms of the 
definition must be plainer than the subject defined, or 
else they will not, in general, explain it. Hence, the 
more common the subject, the more difficult is it to 
define, because the more difficult to find terms simpler 
than the subject itself. Hence, also, it may be observed, 
that it is useless and unnecessary to define very com- 
mon words; as an attempt to do so only confuses or 
obscures our ideas of their meaning. 

Lesson I. 

Let the learner point out the parts of the following 
definitions : — 

1. Flattery is false praise. 

2. Avarice — an excessive desire of wealth. 

D 3 



38 ENGLISH STYLE. 

3. Generosity — an act of self-sacrifice for the be- 
nefit of others. 

4. Perseverance — a continued determination to 
overcome difficulties. 

5. Procrastination — the habit of delaying our 
duties. 

6. Biography — an account of the lives of celebrated 
people. 

7. Philosophy — an inquiry into the nature and 
properties of things. 

8. Education — the process of training all the mental 
and bodily powers. 

9. A garden — a space enclosed, for the cultivation 
of fruit, flowers, &c. 

10. A day — the space of twenty-four hours. 

11. A gallon — a measure containing eight pints. 

12. A soldier — one who fights on land for the de- 
fence of his country. 

REMARKS ON DEFINITIONS. 

When, in contemplating a number of subjects, we 
find them to agree in some one quality, the term that 
expresses that quality is called a generic term ; i. e. 
it represents a whole genus, or class of beings or 
things. Thus : a man, a horse, a dog, a fox, and 
many others, agree in the quality of possessing life. 
The word that expresses this quality is "animal" 
and the terms, man, horse, dog, &c, are all included in 
this genus. Again, under the generic term tree, may 
be ranged, oak, elm, pine, beech, &c. So, the genus 
vice will comprise avarice, gambling, drunkenness, 
and many others. 



DEFINITIONS. 



39 



Lesson II. 

To the following forms add the species, to make up 
the definition : — 



Vice. 
Avarice is the vice . . 
Luxury is the vice . . 
Dishonesty is the vice 
Drunkenness . . . 
Gluttony . . . 
Anger . . . 
Falsehood . . . 
Gambling . . . 



State. 

Peace is a state . . . 
Prosperity is a state 
Poverty is a state . . 
War . . . 
Happiness . . . 
Melancholy . . . 
Excitement . . . 
Despair . . . 



Lesson III. 

Complete the definition, as in Lesson II., by the 
addition of the species : — 



Art. 

Music is the art . . 
Painting is the art 
Poetry is the art . 
Sculpture . . . 
Architecture . . . 
Composition . . . 
Printing . . . 
Writing . . . 



Science. 
Geography is the science 
Geology is the science . 
Grammar is the science . 
Astronomy . . . 
Geometry . . . 
Mechanics . . . 
Hydrostatics . . . 
Pneumatics . . . 



Lesson IV. 
Add the species, as before : — 



Habit. 
Procrastination is the habit. 
Curiosity is the habit of . . 
Idleness is the habit of . . . 
Punctuality . . . 
Industry . . . 
Perseverance . . . 
Attention . . . 
Observation . . . 



Virtue. 
Justice is the virtue . . . 
Temperance is the virtue . 
Fortitude is the virtue . 
Generosity . . . 
Patience . . . 
Obedience . . . 
Resignation . . . 
Humility . . . 

D 4 



4D 



ENGLISH STYLE. 



Lesson V. 
To be worked as the above lessons. 



One who (an agent), 
A king is one who ... 
A captain is one . . . 
A general is one . . . 
A magistrate . . . 
A statesman . . . 
A schoolmaster . . . 
A superintendent . . . 
A merchant . . . 



A Faculty or power. 
The memory is the power of . . . 
The understanding is the fa- 
culty of . . . 
The fancy is the faculty . . . 
The imagination . . . 
Keason . . . 
Association . . . 
Abstraction ... 
Perception . . . 



Lesson VI. 

Let the learner supply the genus in each of the 
following propositions : — 

Society is the .... of a number of rational beings. 
An insurrection is the .... against civil authority. 
Language is the .... of ideas by significant sounds. 
Sobriety is the .... of being habitually temperate 
in the use of spirituous liquors. 

Madness is .... of disordered reason or intellect. 



A 'politician is . . 
vernment. 

Gunpowder is a 
charcoal. 

A market is a . . . 
exposed for sale. 

Grammar is the 
language correctly. 

A meadow is . . . 
of hay. 

A month is the . . 

A helm is the . . . 



. versed in the science of go- 

... of saltpetre, sulphur, and 

where provisions or cattle are 

... of speaking and writing a 

appropriated to the production 

. of four weeks. 

by which a ship is steered. 



DEFINITIONS. 41 

An orphan is ... . who is deprived of his parents. 
Idolatry is the .... of images. 
A plough is ... . used for turning up and breaking 
the earth. 

Ink is a ... . used for writing. 

Lesson VII. 

Let the learner substitute the subjects for the fol- 
lowing definitions, and introduce them into sentences 
of his own composition: — 

1. A representation of natural objects by means of 
colour, &c. 

2. A periodical record of passing events. 

3. One who conducts the private correspondence 
of another. 

4. An account of the lives of eminent characters. 

5. The power of giving utterance to thought. 

6. The sign of an idea. 

7. The power of keeping our desires within bounds. 

8. The abode of the just in a future life. 

9. A man of enormous bulk and stature. 

10. A body of troops commanded by a colonel. 

11. A machine used for communicating intelli- 
gence from a distance by signals. 

12. The supreme council of the English nation. 

Lesson VIII. 

The following words are to be defined, and remarks 
made upon them by the pupil. Thus : — 

subject. genus. species. remarks. 

A general is the commander of an army. One who 
holds this office should possess many high qualities ; 



42 ENGLISH STYLE. 

courage, resolution, knowledge of military tactics, 
skill in manoeuvring, &c. Hannibal, Julius Caesar, 
Frederic the Great, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Wel- 
lington, were all celebrated generals. 



1. A dictionary . . . 

2. A grammar . . . 

3. Harmony . . . 

4. A minister . . . 

5. Contentment . . . 

6. A pilgrim . . . 

7. A record . . . 

8. A residence . . . 

9. A catalogue . . . 

10. A consul . . . 

11. A gladiator . . . 

12. A square (mathematical). .. 



13. A sergeant (military) . 

14. A sentence (legal) . . . 

15. A revolution (political) . 

16. A review (literary) . . , 

1 7. A pirate . . • 

1 8. A museum « . . 

19. A parish . . . 

20. Economy . . . 

21. A monitor . . . 

22. A month . . . 

23. A glacier . . . 

24. A herald . . . 



DESCRIPTION. 

A description differs from a definition ; the latter is 
merely a general statement of the nature of a subject, 
whereas the former enters into the particulars by 
which certain individual persons, places, and things 
are distinguished from others. Thus, the definition of 
"man" may be "a rational animal;" but the descrip- 
tion of a man would inform us of the appearance, 
manners, mental peculiarities, &c, of some one man. 

A description needs not contain all the qualities 
belonging to a subject. Sometimes it may refer 
only to external appearance — sometimes to moral 
habits — sometimes to mental faculties or acquire- 
ments, &c. Of course, the more of these various 
qualities it comprises, the more complete will be the 
description. 

To describe well, attention should be directed 



DESCRIPTION. 43 

chiefly to three points : 1. Begin with the larger 
divisions, and then go into particulars. 2. Do not 
make too many subdivisions ; and 3. Be careful to 
choose accurate and appropriate terms. 

Before writing a description, it will be well to 
consider the various parts or divisions of the subject, 
and to make a list of them in their proper order. 
This will prevent us from losing sight of any of the 
necessary parts of the subject, and will serve to 
render the description more complete. For example, 
suppose we are required to describe a country 
house, the following points would have to be consi- 
dered:— I. The situation. 2. The country in the 
immediate neighbourhood. 3. The garden, stables, 
out-houses, &c. 4. The style of building. 5. The 
entrance-hall. 6. The division or plan of the house. 
7- The library and other sitting-rooms. 8. The bed- 
rooms, &c. 

It should also be remembered that, in writing a 
description, it is inexpedient to enter too minutely 
into details. A sufficient number of these should be 
introduced to fix the peculiarity of the subject — to 
bring it vividly before the reader's mental vision ; but 
the broad outlines and striking features are the main 
points for consideration : they are like the powerful 
strokes of the painter's brush, which stamp the indi- 
viduality of the scene, and impress it firmly upon 
the imagination. 

EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIONS. 
I. 

The following is a description of an interior, from 
Sir Walter Scott's story, « Old Mortality ":— 



44 ENGLISH STYLE. 

" Upon entering the place of refuge, he found Bal- 
four seated on his humble couch, with a pocket Bible 
open in his hand, which he seemed to study with intense 
meditation. His broadsword, which he had unsheathed 
in the first alarm, at the arrival of the dragoons, lay- 
naked across his knees, and the little taper that stood 
beside him on the old chest, which served the purpose 
of a table, threw a partial and imperfect light upon 
those stern and harsh features, in which ferocity was 
rendered more solemn and dignified by a wild cast of 
tragic enthusiasm. His brow was that of one in whom 
some strong o'ermastering principle has overwhelmed 
all other passions and feelings, — like the swell of a high 
spring- tide, when the usual cliffs and breakers vanish 
from the eye, and their existence is only indicated by 
the chafing foam of the waves that burst and wheel 
over them." 

The singular beauty of this passage consists in the 
truth of the delineation, and the power and skill with 
which the whole picture is drawn. The words marked 
in italics are the main features — the materials of the 
description — and their grouping contributes power- 
fully to deepen the impression. First, we have Bal- 
four, the principal figure. The couch, the Bible, the 
broadsword, and the taper, are external accessories, 
and the reflection of the light upon his features gives 
the writer an opportunity of revealing the character 
and feelings, as well as the outward appearance, of the 
fanatical Puritan. The graceful figure with which 
the passage closes, renders it one of the most striking 
and impressive descriptions in the works of this great 
writer. 



DESCRIPTION. 45 

n. 

The second example is a description of external 
appearance, extracted from Prescott's "History of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain " : — 

"King Ferdinand was of the middle size. His 
complexion was fresh ; his eyes bright and animated ; 
his nose and mouth small and finely formed, and his 
teeth white ; his forehead lofty and serene, with 
flowing hair of a bright chestnut. His manners were 
courteous, and his countenance seldom clouded by 
anything like spleen or melancholy. He was grave 
in speech and action, and had a marvellous dignity of 
presence. His whole demeanour, in fine, was truly 
that of a great king." 

Here, the writer does little more than enumerate 
the several particulars of Ferdinand's appearance, 
viz., his height, complexion, features, hair, speech, 
action, and manner, and lastly, sums up with his 
whole demeanour. Though nothing is said of the 
king's morals or intellect, the passage fulfils its pro- 
bable intention, which was to give a lively picture of 
his personal appearance. 

ill. 

Our next example is the description of a prospect ; 
and is characterised by that vigour of delineation and 
exquisite delicacy, and accuracy in choice of terms, 
for which its author is so justly celebrated : — 

" If I were to choose a spot from which the rising 
or setting sun could be seen to the greatest possible 
advantage, it would be that wild 'path winding round 
the foot of the high belt of semicircular rocks, called 



46 ENGLISH STYLE. 

Salisbury crags, and marking the verge of the steep 
descent which slopes down into the glen on the south- 
eastern side of the city of Edinburgh. The prospect, 
in its general outline, commands a close-built, high- 
piled city, stretching itself out beneath in a form 
which, to a romantic imagination, may be supposed 
to represent that of a dragon ; — now a noble arm of 
the sea, with its rocks, isles, distant shores, and 
boundary of mountains; and now a fair and fertile 
champaign country, varied with hill, dale, and rock, 
and skirted by the picturesque ridge of the Pentland 
Mountains. But as the path gently circles around 
the base of the cliffs, the prospect, composed as it is 
of these enchanting and sublime objects, changes at 
every step, and presents them blended with, or 
divided from, each other in every possible variety 
which can gratify the eye and the imagination. When 
a piece of scenery so beautiful, yet so varied, — so ex- 
citing by its intricacy, and yet so sublime, — is lighted 
up by the tints of morning or of evening, and displays 
all that variety of shadowy depth exchanged with 
partial brilliancy, which gives character even to the 
tamest of landscapes, the effect approaches near to 
Enchantment" — Sir W. Scott 



IV. 

The following is the description of the moral cha- 
racter of Oliver Cromwell, by Smollett : — 

"His character was formed of an amazing conjunc- 
tion of enthusiasm, hypocrisy, and ambition. He was 
possessed of courage and resolution that overlooked 
all dangers, and saw no difficulties. He dived into the 



DESCRIPTION. 47 

characters of mankind with wonderful sagacity, whilst 
he concealed his own purposes under the impenetrable 
shield of dissimulation. He reconciled the most 
atrocious crimes to the most rigid notions of religious 
obligations. From the severest exercises of devotion 
he relaxed into the most ludicrous and idle buffoonery. 
He preserved the dignity and distance of his character 
in the midst of the coarsest familiarity. He was cruel 
and tyrannical from policy, just and temperate from in- 
clination ; perplexed and despicable in his discourse, 
clear and consummate in his designs ; ridiculous in 
his reveries, respectable in his conduct : in a word, 
the strongest compound of villany and virtue, base- 
ness and magnanimity, absurdity and good sense, that 
we find upon record in the annals of mankind." 

Here, again, the words in italics show the main 
features of the character. It is to be observed, that 
the historian first notes the general disposition, and 
then proceeds to support his opinion by enumerating 
particulars. The first-mentioned qualities seem to 
form the basis of the character, and the latter part of 
the passage shows the result of those qualities, the 
whole concluding with a general view of the subject. 



The following description of a town in France is 
extracted from Mr. M'Culloch's " Geographical Dic- 
tionary." It consists merely of an enumeration of 
particulars. 

14 Chateau Thierry is a town in France, in the 
department of Aisne, situated on the Mar?ie, twenty- 
five miles south of Soissons, and having a population 



48 ENGLISH STYLE. 

of 4761. It is built on the declivity of a hill, the 
summit of which is surmounted by its ancient castle, 
a vast mass of thick walls, towers, and turrets. It has 
a considerable suburb on the left bank of the Marne, 
the communication between them being kept up by a 
handsome stone bridge of three arches. It has a court 
of primary jurisdiction, a communal college, an esta- 
blishment for the spinning of cotton, and tanneries. 
The famous poet, La Fontaine, not less original by 
his character and conduct than by his talent and 
genius, was born here on the 8th July, 1661. The 
house which he inhabited is still preserved ; and a 
marble statue was erected to his memory on the end 
of the bridge in 1824. Chateau Thierry suffered 
considerably during the campaign of 1814." 

VI. 

The last example is the description of a piece of 
mechanism, which is given on the same principle as 
above, viz., enumeration ; the parts,, actions, &c, of 
the subject, being stated in their proper order. 

" The automaton coach and horses constructed for 
Louis XIV., when a child, and described by M. Camus, 
is exceedingly curious. This consisted of a small 
coach, drawn by two horses, in which was the figure 
of a lady with & footman and page behind. On being 
placed at the extremity of a table of determinate size, 
the coachman smacked his whip, and the horses im- 
mediately set out, moving their legs in a very natural 
manner. When the carriage reached the edge of the 
table, it turned at a right angle, and proceeded along 
that edge. When it arrived opposite to the place 



DESCRIPTION. 49 

where the king was seated, it stopped, and the page 
getting down, opened a door, upon which the lady 
alighted, having in her hand a petition, which she 
presented with a curtsy. After waiting some time, 
she again curtsied, and re-entered the carriage ; the 
page then resumed his place, the coachman whipped 
his horses, which began to move; the footman running 
after, jumped up behind, and the carriage drove on." 

The following subjects are intended as exercises in 
descriptive writing : — 

i. 

Subject An evening party. 

Materials: — 1. The society. 2. Topics of conver- 
sation ; scientific, literary, &c. 3. Discussion of the 
passing news. 4. Music; singing, playing. 5. 
Hour of departure, weather on the return home, &c. 

ii. 
Subject A bathing -place. 

Materials: — 1. The situation. 2. Distance from 
the capital. 3. The size. 4. The population and 
their pursuits. 5. The visitors, where from, and their 
numbers. 6. The general amusements. 7. The 
walks in the vicinity. 8. The public buildings, 
churches, institutions. 9. The season when most 
frequented, &c. 

in. 

Subject A neivspaper. 

Materials: — 1. The name and reputation. 2. Its 
circulation. 3. Advertisements. 4. General ar- 

E 



50 ENGLISH STYLE. 

rangement. 5. Politics ; talent displayed in its 
leading articles. 6. Foreign news, correspondents. 
7. Literary criticism. 8. Parliamentary reports. 9. 
Legal intelligence. 10. Its general influence, &c. 

IV. 

Subject A ship. 

Materials: — 1. The name. 2. The dimensions. 
3. The tonnage. 4. For what service. 5. Power 
of sailing. 6. Propelled by sails or steam. 7. Con- 
structed of what material, number of masts, &c. 8. 
Accommodation for passengers. 9. Character of 
the captain. 10. The crew, their disposition and 
efficiency, &c. 



Subject A journey. 

Materials: — 1. In England, or on the Continent. 
2. Railway, steamboat, carriage, &c. 3. The towns. 
4. Characteristics of the people. 5. The language or 
dialect. 6. The scenery or general appearance of 
the country. 7. The incidents of the journey. 8. 
The number of the party travelling together. 9. The 
hotel accommodation. 10. The object of the journey. 
11. The time it occupied. 12. The return home, 
&c. 

VI. 

Subject A country walk. 

Materials: — 1. The weather and time of the year. 
2. Number of companions. 3. Meadows, green lanes, 






NARRATIVE. 



51 



high roads, &c. 4. Prospects. 5. Gentlemen's seats, 
farm-houses, woods, rivers, &c. 6. Incidents : storm, 
rain, people met, &c. 

The following are proposed as useful subjects for 
description : — 



1. 


A sea- port town. 


21. 


A costume. 


2. 


A telescope. 


22. 


A conflagration. 


3. 


A piano -forte. 


23. 


The Royal Exchange 


4. 


A school-room. 


24. 


A tempest. 


5. 


A writing-desk. 


25. 


A lighthouse. 


6. 


The Crimea. 


26. 


A carriage. 


7. 


A river. 


27. 


A language. 


S. 


A cathedral. 


28. 


A calendar. 


9. 


A manufactory. 


29. 


London. 


10. 


A bridge. 


30. 


A university. 


11. 


A palace. 


31. 


A railway. 


12. 


The Exhibition (of 1851). 


32. 


A custom-house. 


13. 


A mine. 


33. 


The Thames Tunnel. 


14. 


A mountain. 


34. 


A cemetery. 


15. 


A man-of-warc 


35. 


A library. 


16. 


A monastery. 


36. 


Money. 


17. 


A prison. 


37. 


An army. 


IS. 


A fortress. 


38. 


A pestilence. 


19. 


An hospital. 


39. 


An estate. 


20. 


A fleet. 

NARK. 


40. 
&TI 


A tournament, &c. 
VE. 



A narrative is a species of description. Here the 
composition consists of the relation of events and 
circumstances, with an account of the characters 
engaged in them. In this form of writing, particular 
care should be taken of the arrangement. Facts 
should be related in the order of time in which they 
occurred, and should not be mixed up with each 
other. A narrative should be a plain and simple 
statement ; such words should be chosen as will 

e 2 



52 ENGLISH STYLE. 

best suit the case, and no attempt should be made at 
introducing far-fetched terms or high-flown language. 
Reflections suggested by the incidents may be occa- 
sionally interspersed with them ; but it is recom- 
mended that, at first, the student confine himself to 
the mere relation of facts. At a later period, when 
he will have acquired some facility of expression 
in relation, remarks or reflections may be added. 
These, however, should never be too long, or too 
frequent, as they will then divert the reader's atten- 
tion from the facts stated, and interfere with the 
interest awakened by the story. A shipwreck, a 
battle, the events of a reign, a conspiracy, &c v are 
proper subjects for a narrative. 



EXAMPLES OF NARRATIVE. 



The following narrative of the Conquest of Rhodes 
by Solyman, the Turkish Sultan, extracted from 
Robertson's " History of Charles V.," is an example 
of this form of composition: — 

" While the Christian princes were thus wasting 
each other's strength, Solyman the Magnificent en- 
tered Hungary with a numerous army, and investing 
Belgrade, which was deemed the chief barrier of 
that kingdom against the Turkish arms, soon forced 
it to surrender. Encouraged by this success, he 
turned his victorious arms against the island of 
Rhodes, the seat, at that time, of the knights of 
St. John of Jerusalem. This small state he attacked 
with such a numerous army as the lords of Asia have 



NARRATIVE. 53 

been accustomed, in every age, to bring into the 
field. Two hundred thousand men, and a fleet of 
400 sail, appeared against a town defended by a 
garrison consisting of 5000 soldiers, and 600 knights, 
under the command of Villiers de LTsle Adam, the 
grand-master, whose wisdom and valour rendered him 
worthy of that station at such a dangerous juncture. 
No sooner did he begin to suspect the destination of 
Solyman's vast armaments, than he despatched mes- 
sengers to all the Christian courts, imploring their 
aid against the common enemy. But though every 
prince in that age acknowledged Rhodes to be the 
great bulwark of Christendom in the East, and 
trusted to the gallantry of its knights as the best 
security against the progress of the Ottoman arms ; 
though Adrian, with a zeal which became the head 
and father of the church, exhorted the contending 
powers to forget their private quarrels, and, by 
uniting their arms, to prevent the infidels from 
destroying a society which did honour to the Chris- 
tian name ; yet so violent and implacable was the 
animosity of both parties, that, regardless of the 
danger to which they exposed all Europe, and 
unmoved by the entreaties of the grand-master, they 
suffered Solyman to carry on his operations against 
Rhodes, without disturbance. The grand-master, 
after incredible efforts of courage, of patience, and of 
military conduct, during a siege of six months ; after 
sustaining many assaults, and disputing every post 
with amazing obstinacy, was obliged at last to yield 
to numbers, and, having obtained an honourable 
capitulation from the sultan, who admired and re- 
spected his virtue, he surrendered the town, which 

e 3 



54 ENGLISH STYLE. 

was reduced to a heap of rubbish, and destitute of 
every resource. Charles and Francis, ashamed of 
having occasioned such a loss to Christendom by their 
ambitious contests, endeavoured to throw the blame 
of it on each other ; while all Europe, with greater 
justice, imputed it equally to both. The emperor, by 
way of reparation, granted the knights of St. John 
the small island of Malta, in which they fixed their 
residence, retaining, though with less power and 
splendour, their ancient spirit and implacable enmity 
to the infidels/' 

In the above passage, the order of time is strictly 
maintained. Solyman's success against Belgrade is 
mentioned as the immediate cause of the attack on 
Rhodes. We are then informed who were the de- 
fenders of this island, and of the respective numbers 
of the contending forces. The character of the grand- 
master is merely hinted at in general terms, and his 
efforts to gain assistance are described. Then come 
the part taken by the pope Adrian in the matter, and 
the cause of the neglect of the Christian princes to 
assist the knights. The circumstances of the siege 
are then stated, and the issue of the event ; the 
whole passage concluding with some remarks on the 
consequences of this event. 



ii. 

The second example of this form is taken from 
Alison's " History of Europe," and gives an account of 
the circumstances attending the assassination of the 
Emperor Paul I. of Russia: — 

" On the evening before his death, Paul received a 



NAKRATIVE. 55 

note, when at supper, warning him of the danger 
with which he was threatened. He put it in his 
pocket, saying he would read it on the morrow. He 
retired to bed at twelve. At two in the morning, 
Prince Suboff, whose situation and credit in the 
palace gave him access at all times to the imperial 
chambers, presented himself with the other conspi- 
rators at the door. A hussar, who refused admission, 
was cut down on the spot, and the whole party 
entered, and found the royal apartments empty. 
Paul, hearing the noise, had got up, and hid himself 
in a closet. * He has escaped ! ' said some of the 
conspirators. ' That he has not,' returned Benning- 
sen. ' No weakness, or I will put you all to death.' 
At the same time, Pahlen, who never lost his presence 
of mind, put his hand on the bed-clothes, and feeling 
them warm, observed that the emperor could not be 
far off, and he was soon discovered and dragged from 
his retreat. They presented to the emperor his 
abdication to sign. Paul refused. A contest arose, 
and in the struggle, an officer's sash was passed round 
the neck of the unhappy monarch, and he was 
strangled, after a desperate resistance. The two 
grand-dukes were in the room below. Alexander 
eagerly inquired, the moment it was over, whether 
they had saved his father's life. Pahlen's silence told 
too plainly the melancholy tale, and the young prince 
tore his hair in an agony of grief, and broke out into 
sincere and passionate exclamations of sorrow at the 
catastrophe which had prepared the way for his 
ascent to the throne. The despair of the empress 
and the grand-duke Con stan tine was equally vehe- 
ment ; but Pahlen, calm and collected, represented 

£ 4 



56 ENGLISH STYLE. 

that the empire indispensably required a change of 
policy, and that nothing now remained but for Alex- 
ander to assume the reins of government." 

The same principle is adopted in the above extract 
as in the one before it. The facts are related in the 
order in which they happened, without any obser- 
vations or reflections. The emperor's neglect of the 
warning note — his retiring to bed — the appearance of 
the conspirators — the assassination of the sentinel — 
and the other circumstances which led to the cata- 
strophe, are vividly and graphically told ; what imme- 
diately followed the death of the emperor, being 
naturally reserved for the close of the description. 

The following subjects are proposed as exercises in 
narrative : — 



Subject . . . . A voyage. 

Materials : — The date of sailing — name of the ship 

port from which she sailed — place of destination — 

passengers how many — describe incidents of the 
voyage — way of passing the day — the weather — 
the cargo — date of arrival, &c. 

ii. 
Subject . . . . A trial 

Materials : — The court — judges — counsel — ap- 
pearance of the prisoner — charge brought against 
him — evidence given by witnesses — positive or 
circumstantial — cross-examination — the defence — 



NARRATIVE. 57 

the summing up and charge to the jury — time of the 
jury's deliberation — their verdict, &c. 

in. 
Subject .... The reign of Richard L 

Materials : — Date of his accession — whose son — 
his general character — persecution of the Jews — 
crusade — quarrel with Philip II. at Messina — his 
marriage at Cyprus — exploits in Palestine — his 
haughty temper — Philip's return — Eichard quits 
the Holy Land — his shipwreck and imprisonment — 
ransom — return to England — war against Philip — 
circumstances and date of his death. 

IV. 

Subject. . . . . A battle. 

Materials : — Number of forces engaged — infantry 

— cavalry — guns — the description of the battle-field 

— disposition of the forces — position of the generals 

— the first attack — how sustained — vicissitudes of 
fortune — the reserve — last grand charge — victory 
and its consequences. 

v. 
Subject . . . . A conspiracy. 

Materials : — The object — names of the leaders — 
their secret meetings — watchword — oath of secrecy 

— the plan of execution — betrayal by a conspirator — 
his motives — bribe ? — conscientious ? — consequent 
discovery of the plot — arrest of the leading conspi- 
rators — their trial and execution. 



58 



ENGLISH STYLE. 



VI. 

Subject . . • . A rebellion. 

Materials : — Causes of discontent — grievances of 
the people — measures taken by the government — 
inflammatory harangues of orators — excitement of 
the populace — excesses — defiance of authority — 

depredations, fires, &c measures taken to restore 

order — special constables — the military — collision 
— the insurgents defeated — order restored — grie- 
vances redressed. &c. 



VII. 

Subject .... Afire. 

Materials : — Midnight — silent — - sudden outburst 
of fire — waking of the inmates — the increase of the 
flames — smoke — suffocation — rescue of the sufferers 
— injuries received — loss of property — consequent 
distress — destruction of valuable papers — insurance, 
&c. 

Subjects for Narrative. 



1. 


A coronation. 


17. 


A retreat (from Moscow?). 


2. 


The plague of London. 


18. 


An invasion. 


3. 


An accident. 


19. 


A rebellion. 


4. 


The Norman Conquest. 


20. 


A storm at sea. 


5. 


A marriage ceremony. 


21. 


A visit to a library. 


6. 


A siege. 


22. 


A concert. 


7. 


A death-bed. 


23. 


A sea-fight. 


8. 


A tiger-hunt. 


24. 


A campaign. 


9. 


A shipwreck. 


25. 


A visit to some friends. 


10. 


A regatta. 


26. 


The voyage of a whaler. 


11. 


A continental journey. 


27. 


A visit to a salt-mine. 


12. 


A trip to the lakes. 


28. 


The execution of Mary 


13. 


The ascent of Mont Blanc. 




Queen of Scots. 


14. 


A boat-race. 


29. 


Imprisonment in an ene- 


15. 


An inundation. 




my's country. 


16. 


A visit in the country. 


30. 


A conflagration. 



LETTER- WRITING. 59 

LETTER- WRITING. 

Of all the forms of composition, letter-writing, with 
which everybody is expected to be practically ac- 
quainted, is the one most frequently required. It is 
scarcely possible to lay down any positive rules on 
the subject of epistolary composition ; since, as letters 
embrace a very great variety of matter, the style will 
naturally vary with the subject, feelings of the writer, 
fcc. 

The form of a letter has been frequently adopted 
by writers wishing to convey their thoughts to the 
public on history, philosophy, &c. But these works 
are not to be classed as letters. Epistolary writing 
is recognised as a distinct form of composition, only 
when it is an easy and familiar conversation carried 
on between two friends by means of a letter. 

The letters of illustrious persons have always been 
interesting ; sometimes from the importance of the 
subject ; but more frequently, because, being easy and 
friendly communications, they are generally a good 
criterion of the writer's character. For here, if any- 
where, we naturally expect to find the man — his 
whole disposition and turn of mind. 

In every case, therefore, of letter-writing, the main 
point, and one to be constantly held in view, is a 
simple and natural mode of expression. In a letter, 
everything should be easy and flowing ; the communi- 
cation should be made in a clear, straightforward 
way, with no straining after effect, and no adoption 
of out-of-the-way terms or far-fetched expressions. 
With regard to the arrangement of the matter, it may 
be proper to say that whatever the writer wishes to 



60 ENGLISH STYLE. 

communicate about one subject, should be exhausted 
before he proceeds to another, so that he may not recur 
to it in the course of the letter. 

By this means, all the materials of the letter will 
be arranged in proper order, and any misapprehension 
of the contents in the mind of the correspondent will 
be prevented. 

A letter should be begun about one-third from the 
top of the page ; and it may be needless to mention that 
the handwriting should be perfectly clear and legible, 
and that the most scrupulous attention be paid to the 
orthography and punctuation. Capital initials should 
never be used with nouns, unless when*they are proper 
names, or happen to begin a sentence.* 

With respect to the division of syllables, it should 
be remembered : Never to divide monosyllables, or 
words pronounced as monosyllables ; such as " robbed," 
" sinned," &c. The syllables of a proper noun should 
never be divided ; for example, it would be wrong to 
write Lon-don (the first syllable in one line and the 
second in the next) or Canter-bury, or Mr. John-son, &e. 

It may be here useful to caution the learner against 
committing another very common fault in letter- 
writing ; viz. writing the word " yours " with an apo- 
strophe before the final s (your's). This should never 
be done. The apostrophe is properly used only in 
nouns, to distinguish the possessive singular from the 
plural, and is never correctly applied to pronouns of 
any class. 

Another point for consideration is the length of a 

* This rule should be carefully observed, as there seems 
just now a tendency in some to revive the obsolete practice of 
writing every noun with a capital initial. 



LETTER-WRITING. 6 1 

letter. If we write with some special purpose, the 
letter should contain nothing but the one subject ; but 
if, as is often the case, we write to friends at a dis- 
tance, a longer letter will be naturally expected. It 
would be strange, indeed, to write a very short note 
from Calcutta to London. 

The practice of " holiday letter " writing is not to 
be recommended. There is nothing spontaneous or 
natural in holiday letters. They are, in general, 
stiff, formal compositions, always inspected hy the 
teacher before they are despatched, and are, therefore, 
no criterion of a pupil's progress either in sense or 
style. 

Many of our great writers are distinguished for the 
natural grace and ease of their epistolary style. The 
letters of Cowper, Gray, Lady Wortley Montagu, 
Pope, and others, specimens of which are here sub- 
joined, are among the most celebrated. 



SPECIMENS OF LETTERS. 

To Joseph Hill 3 Esq. 

June 25th, 1785. 
My dear friend, 

I w 7 rite in a nook that I call my boudoir. 

It is a summer-house not much bigger than a sedan 

chair, the door of which opens into the garden, that 

is now crowded with pinks, roses, and honeysuckles, 

and the window into my neighbour's orchard. It 

formerly served an apothecary, now dead, as a smoking 

room ; and under my feet is a trap-door, which once 

covered a hole in the ground, where he kept his bottles. 



62 ENGLISH STYLE. 

At present, however, it is dedicated to sublime uses. 
Having lined it with garden mats, and furnished it 
w T ith a table and two chairs, here I write all that I 
write in summer time, whether to my friends or to the 
public. It is secure from all noise, and a refuge from 
all intrusion ; for intruders sometimes trouble me in 
the winter evenings at Olney. But, thanks to my 
boudoir, I can now hide myself from them. A poet's 
retreat is sacred : they acknowledge the truth of that 
proposition, and never presume to violate it. 

The last sentence puts me in mind to tell you that I 
have ordered my volume to your door. My bookseller 
is the most dilatory of all his fraternity ; it is more 
than a month since I returned him the last proof, and 
consequently, since the printing was finished. I sent 
him the manuscript at the beginning of last Novem- 
ber, that he might publish it when the town was full, 
and he will hit the exact moment when it is entirely 
empty. Patience, you will perceive, is in no situa- 
tion exempt from the severest trials, — a remark that 
may serve to comfort you under the numberless trials 

of your own. 

Yours, &c, 

William Cowper. 

To the Countess of Bute. 

Louvere, July 20th, N.S., 1755. 
My dear Child, 

I have now read over the books you were 

so good to send, and intend to say something of 

them all, though some are not worth speaking of. 

I shall begin, in respect to his ^dignity, with Lord 



LETTER- WRITING. 63 

Bolingbroke, who is a glaring proof how far vanity 
can blind a man, and how easy it is to varnish over, 
to one's self, the most criminal conduct. He declares 
he always loved his country, though he confesses he 
endeavoured to betray her to popery and slavery ; 
and loved his friends, though he abandoned them 
to distress, with all the blackest circumstances of 
treachery. His account of the Peace of Utrecht is 
almost equally unfair or partial. I shall allow that, 
perhaps, the views of the Whigs, at that time, were 
too vast, and the nation, dazzled by military glory, 
had hopes too sanguine ; but surely the same terms 
that the French consented to at the Treaty of Ger- 
trudenberg, might have been obtained ; or, if the 
displacing of the Duke of Marlborough raised the 
spirits of our enemies to a degree of refusing what 
they had before offered, how can he excuse the guilt 
of removing him from the head of a victorious army, 
and exposing us to submit to any articles of peace, 
being unable to continue the war ? I agree with him, 
that the idea of conquering France is a wild, extra- 
vagant notion, and would, if possible, be impolitic ; 
but she might have been reduced to such a state as 
would have rendered her incapable of being terrible 
to her neighbours for some ages : nor should we have 
been obliged, as we have done almost ever since, to 
bribe the French ministers to let us live in quiet. 
So much for his political reasonings, which, I confess, 
are delivered in a florid easy style ; but I cannot be 
of Lord Orrery's opinion that he is one of the best 
English writers. Well turned periods, or smooth 
lines, are not the perfection either of prose or verse ; 
they may serve to adorn, but can never stand in the 



64 ENGLISH STYLE. 

place of good sense. Copiousness of words, however 
ranged, is always false eloquence, though it will ever 
impose on some sort of understandings. How many- 
readers and admirers has Madame de Sevigne, who 
only gives us, in a lively manner and fashionable 
phrases, mean sentiments, vulgar prejudices, and 
endless repetitions ? Sometimes the tittle-tattle of 
a fine lady, sometimes that of an old nurse, always 
tittle-tattle ; yet so well gilt over by airy expressions 
•Bnd a flowing style, she will always please the same 
people to whom Lord Bolingbroke will shine as a 
first-rate author. She is so far to be excused, that 
her letters were not intended for the press ; while he 
labours to display to posterity all the wit and learn- 
ing he is master of, and sometimes spoils a good 
argument by a profusion of words, running out into 
several pages a thought that might have been more 
clearly expressed in a few lines, and, what is worse, 
often falls into contradiction and repetitions, which 
are almost unavoidable to all voluminous writers, and 
can only be forgiven to those retailers whose necessity 
compels them to diurnal scribbling, who load their 
meaning with epithets, and run into digressions, 
because (in the jockey phrase), it rids ground, that 
is, it covers a certain quantity of paper, to answer 
the demand of the day. A great part of Lord Boling- 
broke's letters are designed to show his reading, 
which, indeed, appears to have been very extensive ; 
but I cannot perceive that such a minute account of 
it can be of any use to the pupil he intends to in- 
struct ; nor can I help thinking he is far below either 
Tillotson or Addison in style, though the latter was 
sometimes more diffuse than his judgment approved, 



LETTER-WRITING. 65 

to furnish out the length of a daily " Spectator." I 
own I have small regard for Lord Bolingbroke as an 
author, and the highest contempt for him as a man. 
He came into the world greatly favoured both by 
nature and fortune, blest with a noble birth, heir to 
a large estate, endowed with a strong constitution, 
and, as I have heard, a beautiful figure, high spirits, a 
good memory, and a lively apprehension, which was 
cultivated by a learned education : all these glorious 
advantages being left to the direction of a judgment 
i stifled by unbounded vanity, he dishonoured his 
birth, lost his estate, ruined his reputation, and de- 
stroyed his health, by a wild pursuit of eminence 
even in vice and trifles. 

I am far from making misfortune a matter of 
reproach. I know there are accidental occurrences 
not to be foreseen or avoided by human prudence, by 
which a character may be injured, wealth dissipated, 
or a constitution impaired : but I think I may rea- 
sonably despise the understanding of one who con- 
ducts himself in such a manner as naturally produces 
such lamentable consequences, and continues in the 
same destructive paths to the end of a long life, osten- 
tatiously boasting of morals and philosophy in print, 
: and with equal ostentation bragging of the scenes of 
low debauchery in public conversation, though de- 
plorably weak both in mind and body, and his virtue 
and his vigour in a state of non-existence. His 
confederacy with Swift and Pope puts me in mind 
of that of Bessus and his sword-men, in the * King 
and no King," who endeavour to support themselves 
by giving certificates of each other's merit. Pope 
has triumphantly declared that they may do and 



66 ENGLISH STYLE. 

say whatever silly things they please, they will 
still be the greatest geniuses ever exhibited. I am 
delighted with the comparison given of their benevo- 
lence, which is, indeed, most aptly figured by a circle 
in the water, which widens till it comes to nothing at 
all ; but I am provoked at Lord Bolingbroke's misre- 
presentation of my favourite Atticus, who seems to 
have been the only Roman that, from good sense, had 
a true notion of the times in which he lived, in which 
the Republic was inevitably perishing ; and the two 
factions, who pretended to support it, equally endea- 
vouring to gratify their ambition in its ruin. A wise 
man, in that case, would certainly declare for neither, 
and try to save himself and family from the general 
wreck ; which could not be done but by a superiority 
of understanding acknowledged on both sides. I see 
no glory in losing life or fortune by being the dupe 
of either, and very much applaud that conduct which 
could preserve an universal esteem amidst the fury of 
opposite parties. We are obliged to act vigorously 
where action can do any good ; but in a storm, when 
it is impossible to work with success, the best hands 
and ablest pilots may laudably gain the shore if they 
can. Atticus could be a friend to men without awak- 
ing their resentment, and be satisfied with his own 
virtue without seeking popular fame ; he had the 
reward of his wisdom in his tranquillity, and will 
ever stand among the few examples of true philo- 
sophy, either ancient or modern. 

You must forgive this tedious dissertation. I hope 
you read in the same spirit I write, and take as proofs 
of affection whatever is sent you by your truly affec- 
tionate mother, 

M. WORTLEY. 



LETTER-WRITING. 67 

To Mr. Digby. 

August 12th, 1724. 
My dear friend, 

I have been above a month strolling about 
in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, from garden to 
garden, but still returning to Lord Cobham's with 
fresh satisfaction. I should be sorry to see my Lady 
Scudamore's till it has had the full advantage of Lord 
B 's improvements ; and then I will expect some- 
thing like the waters of Riskins and the woods of 
Oakley together, which (without flattery) would be 
at least as good as anything in our world ; for as to 
the hanging gardens of Babylon, the paradise of 
Cyrus, and the Sharawaggis of China,, I have little 

or no ideas of them ; but I dare say Lord B has,, 

because they were certainly both very great and very 
wild. I hope Mrs. Mary Digby is quite tired of his 
lordship's extravagante bergerie ; and that she is just 
now sitting, or rather reclining, on a bank, fatigued 
with over much dancing and singing at his unwearied 
request and instigation. I know your love of ease so 
well, that you might be in danger of being too quiet 
to enjoy quiet, and too philosophical to be a philo- 
sopher, were it not for the ferment Lord B will 

put you into. One of his lordship's maxims is, that 
a total abstinence from intemperance or business is no 
more philosophy than a total consopiation of the 
senses is repose ; one must feel enough of its contrary 
to have a relish of either. But after all, let your 
temper work, and be as sedate and contemplative as 
you will, I will engage you shall be fit for any of us 
when you come to town in the winter. Folly will 

f 2 



68 ENGLISH STYLE. 

laugh you into all the customs of the company here ; 
nothing will be able to prevent your conversion to 
her but indisposition, which, I hope, will be far from 
you. I am telling the worst that can come of you ; 
for as to vice, you are safe ; but folly is many an 
honest man's, nay, every good-humoured man's, lot ; 
nay, it is the seasoning of life ; and fools (in one 
sense) are the salt of the earth ; a little is excellent, 
though indeed a whole mouthful is justly called the 
devil. 

So much for your diversions next winter, and for 
mine. I envy you much more at present than I shall 
then ; for if there be on earth an image of Paradise, it 
is in such perfect union and society as you all possess. 
I would have my innocent envies and wishes of your 
state known to you all; which is far better than 
making you compliments, for it is inward approbation 
and esteem. My Lord Digby has in me a sincere 
servant, or would have, were there any occasion for 

me to manifest it. 

Yours, &c, 

A. Pope. 

To his Mother. 

Cambridge, Nov. 7th, ] 749. 
My dear Mother, 

The unhappy news I have just received 
from you equally surprises and afflicts me.* I have 
lost a person I loved very much, and have been much 
used to from my infancy ; but am much more con- 
cerned for your loss, the circumstances of which I 

* The death of his aunt, Mrs. Mary Antrobus. 



LETTER- WRITING. 69 

forbear to dwell upon, as you must be too sensible of 
them yourself ; and will, I fear, more and more need 
a consolation that no one can give, except He who 
has preserved her to you so many years, and at last, 
when it was His pleasure, has taken her from us to 
Himself: and perhaps, if we reflect upon what she 
felt in this life, we may look upon this as an instance 
of His goodness both to her and to those that loved 
her. She might have languished many years before 
our eyes in a continual increase of pain, and totally 
helpless ; she might have long wished to end her 
misery without being able to attain it ; or perhaps 
even lost all sense, and yet continued to breathe ; a 
sad spectacle to such as must have felt more for her 
than she could have done for herself. However you 
may deplore your own loss, yet think that she is at 
last easy and happy ; and has now more occasion to 
pity us than we her. I hope and beg you will support 
yourself with that resignation we owe to Him who 
gave us our being for our good, and who deprives us 
of it for the same reason. I would have come to you 
directly, but you do not say whether you desire I 
should or not : if you do, I beg I may know it, for 
there is nothing to hinder me, and I am in very good 
health. 

Yours, &c, 

Thomas Gray. 

Subjects for Letters. 

1. From a friend on his arrival in Canada. 

2. From a brother to his sister (both at school). 

3. From a sister at home to her brother at school. 
f 3 



70 ENGLISH STYLE. 

4. From a daughter to her mother, describing a visit 

in the country. 

5. From a son at school to his father, giving an ac- 

count of his progress. 

6. From a student at college to a friend, giving an 

account of his studies. 

7. From a school-boy to his school-fellow, describing 

how he passed the holidays. 

8. From the head of a mercantile house in London to 

his correspondent at Hong-Kong ; on business. 

9. From a tourist on the Continent to a friend in 

London. 

10. From a father to his son in Australia. 

11. From an English merchant at the Havannah to 

his London correspondent ; on business. 

12. From a guardian to his ward, travelling on the 

Continent with a tutor. 

13. From a friend in the country to one in London ; 

an invitation. 

14. From a daughter at school to her mother. 

1 5. From a resident in India to a friend in England ; 

describing his mode of life. 

16. From a military officer in India to his family 

in England. 

17. From a correspondent in Paris to the editor of 

a London newspaper (news). 

18. From a resident in Paris to his friend in London. 

19. From a tourist in N. Wales to his friend. 

20. A letter of congratulation to a young friend on 

his coming of age. 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 71 



ON DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 

There are certain forms of writing which, though 
useful to all, should be the especial study of those 
who will have to fulfil secretarial duties, or who may 
be connected in any way with diplomatic affairs ; viz. 
Despatches and Reports. 

The chief difference between a despatch and a report 
is that the former gives an account of actions, or events, 
of recent occurrence ; while the latter simply states 
the condition of things. A despatch describes the 
circumstances of a battle, the debates of a conference, 
the progress of a treaty; sometimes it gives an account 
of the particulars of a quarrel or misunderstanding 
with a foreign court ; the result of an interview, the 
general tenor of a conversation, &e. A report may 
contain an account of the state of a colony, or of an 
army as to food, clothes, health, effective force, or 
numbers, &c. ; in fine, a collection of all the sta- 
tistics applicable in such cases. It might enter into 
particulars as to the intellectual or moral advancement 
of a certain population, the per centage of births and 

1 deaths, the prevalent forms of disease, &c. 

The general qualities of style required in other 

I cases are applicable to the preparation of a report or 
a despatch; though it should be remembered that 
here all attempts at fine writing are wholly out of 
place. A " plain, unvarnished tale," a clear and 
lucid statement, is all that is required, and, indeed, all 
that can be reasonably expected, when it is remem- 
bered that these writings are generally composed 

F 4 



72 ENGLISH STYLE. 

rapidly, and on the spur of the moment, when there 
is no time, even if there were inclination, to be over- 
fastidious in expression.* Here, if anywhere, the 
"pen of a ready writer " is looked for; a power of 
clear description and methodical arrangement being 
the main essentials. The language should be correct 
and perspicuous ; unstudied, natural, and flowing, 
with no unnecessary words, nor a single phrase 
savouring of affectation. 

The despatches of the late Duke of Wellington are 
celebrated for their brevity and clearness of style, and 
may be regarded as models of this form of writing. 
Of these we subjoin the following specimens : — 

(i.) 

Deleytosa, Aug. 8th, 1809. 
To Marquis Wellesley. 

I am happy to find that the Junta have taken 
measures to supply the armies. Your Lordship will 
receive my sentiments upon the permanent arrange- 
ments to be adopted for this purpose, by the courier 
who will deliver this letter. In the mean time, I must 
inform your Excellency that if the Government have 
not already made great exertions to supply us, and if 
we do not experience the immediate effects of these 
exertions, by receiving a plentiful supply of provisions 
and forage, we must move away in as many detach- 
ments as there are roads from hence to the frontiers of 

* It is said of Addison, that his fastidiousness in regard to 
expression would sometimes so embarrass him in the preparation 
of an urgent despatch, that he was obliged to resign the task to 
one of the clerks, in order that it might be expedited in time. 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 73 

Portugal. I assure your Excellency that, since the 
3rd, the army had had no bread till yesterday, when 
about 4000 lbs. of biscuit were divided among 30.000 
mouths. 

The army will be useless in Spain, and will be 
entirely lost, if this treatment is to continue ; and I 
must say, that if any efficient measures for our relief 
had been adopted by the Government when they first 
received the accounts of our distresses from the want 
of provisions, we ought before now to have received 
the benefit of them. There is this day again no bread 
for the soldiers. 

I must at the same time do the late British minister 
the justice to declare that I do not conceive that this 
deficiency of supplies for the army is at all to be attri- 
buted to any neglect or omission on his part. It is to 
be attributed to the poverty and exhausted state of the 
country; to the inactivity of the magistrates and 
people ; to their disinclination to take any trouble, 
except that of packing up their property and running 
away when they hear of the approach of a French 
patrole ; and to their habits of insubordination and 
disobedience of, and to the want of power in, the Go- 
vernment and their officers. 

(2.) 

Badajoz, Nov. 30th, 1809. 
To the Earl of Liverpool. 

The Spanish army in La Mancha, which I 

reported to your Lordship in my despatch of the 16th 

November were on the 10th instant at Los Barrios, 

not far from Ocaiia, moved on that night to attack a 

French corps which was in Ocaria. 



74 ENGLISH STYLE. 

It appears that the Spanish Commander-in-chief was 
not aware that the French corps in Ocana consisted of 
5000 infantry as well as of 800 cavalry ; and he made 
his first attack with the Spanish cavalry only, sup- 
ported by the infantry, which were repulsed with some 
loss of men, and, as I have understood, of two pieces of 
cannon. The French maintained their position in 
Ocana till three in the morning, when they retired one 
league from the town towards Aranjuez ; and at day- 
light they retired to that town, and the Spanish army 
took up its quarters again at Los Barrios. They re- 
mained there till the 13th, when they moved to their 
right to Santa Cruz de la Zarza ; and on the 18th 
they returned to Los Barrios, with the intention of 
attacking a French corps of about 25,000 men, includ- 
ing 5000 cavalry, which was advanced from Aranjuez 
towards Ocana. 

General Areyzaga found, however, that it was most 
probable that the enemy would attack him before he 
should be prepared to make his movements, and he 
formed his army in the plain in the rear of Ocana to 
receive their attack on the morning of the 19th instant. 
The enemy advanced in three columns, with one of 
which they took possession of Ocana ; and, having over- 
thrown the Spanish cavalry on the right of their posi- 
tion, they broke the Spanish infantry of the right wing, 
which was thrown into confusion ; and the left wing 
of the army, which was likewise threatened with an 
attack by the right column of the enemy, retired with- 
out firing a shot. The loss of the Spanish army upon 
this occasion has been considerable. 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 75 

(3.) The Duke of Marlborough's despatch, an- 
nouncing the victory of Blenheim : — 

To Mr. Secretary Harley. 

Camp at Hochstet, Aug. 14th, 1704. 
Sir, 

I gave you an account on Sunday after- 
noon of the situation we were then in, and that we 

k expected to hear the enemy would pass the Danube 
at Lavingen, in order to attack Prince Eugene. At 

" eleven that night, we had an express from him that 
the enemy were come over, and desiring he might be 
reinforced, whereupon, I ordered my brother Churchill 
to advance at one o'clock in the morning with his 
twenty battalions, and by three the whole army was 
in motion ; for the greater expedition, I ordered part 
of the troops to pass aver the Danube, and follow the 
march of the twenty battalions ; and with most of the 
horse and the foot of the first line, I passed the Lech 
at Rain, and came over the Danube at Donauwert, so 
that we all joined the prince that night, intending to 
advance and take this camp of Hochstet, in order 
whereto we went out on Tuesday, early in the morn- 
ing, with forty squadrons to view the ground ; but 
found the enemy had already possessed themselves of 
it, whereupon we resolved to attack them, and accord- 
ingly we marched between three and four, yesterday 
morning, from the camp at Miinster, leaving all our 
tents standing. About six, we came in view of the 
enemy, who, we found, did not expect so early a visit. 
The cannon began to play at half an hour after eight. 
They formed themselves into two bodies ; the Elec- 
tor, with M. Marsin and their troops, opposite our 



76 ENGLISH STYLE. 

right ; and M. de Tallard, with all his, opposed to our 
left, which last fell to my share. They had two little 
rivulets, besides a morass, before them, which we were 
obliged to pass in their view, and Prince Eugene was 
forced to take a great compass to come to the enemy, 
so that it was one o'clock before the battle began ; it 
lasted with great vigour till sunset, when the enemy 
were obliged to retire, and, by the blessing of God, 
we obtained a complete victory. We have cut off 
great numbers of them, as well in the action as in the 
retreat, besides upwards of thirty squadrons of the 
French, which we pushed into the Danube, where we 
saw the greatest part of them perish, M. de Tallard, 
with several of his general officers, being taken pri- 
soners at the same time ; and in the village of Blen- 
heim, which the enemy had entrenched and fortified, 
and where they made the greatest opposition, we 
obliged twenty-six battalions and twelve squadrons 
of dragoons to surrender themselves prisoners at dis- 
cretion. We took likewise all their tents standing 
with their cannon and ammunition, as also a great 
number of standards, kettle-drums and colours in the 
action, so that I reckon the greatest part of M. 
Tallard's army is taken or destroyed. The bravery of 
all our troops on this occasion cannot be expressed ; 
the generals as well as the officers and soldiers behav- 
ing themselves with the greatest courage and resolu- 
tion, the horse and dragoons having been obliged to 
charge four or five several times. 

The Elector and M. Marsin were so advantageously 
posted, that Prince Eugene could make no impression 
upon them till the third attack, at or near seven at 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 77 

night, when he made a great slaughter of them ; but, 
on being near a wood-side, a good body of Bavarians 
retired into it, and the rest of that army retreated 
towards Lavingen, it being too late, and the troops too 
much tired to pursue them far. I cannot say too much 
in praise of the prince's good conduct, and the bravery 
of his troops on this occasion. 

You will please to lay this before her Majesty 
and his Royal Highness, to whom I send my Lord 
Tunbridge with the good news. 

I pray you, likewise, inform yourself and let me 
know her Majesty's pleasure as well relating to M. de 
Tallard and the other general officers, as for the dis- 
posal of near 1200 other officers, and between 8000 
and 9000 common soldiers, who, being all made pri- 
soners by her Majesty's troops, are entirely at her 
.disposal ; but as the charge of subsisting these officers 
and men must be very great, I presume her Majesty 
jwill be inclined that they be exchanged for any other 
prisoners that offer. 

I should likewise be glad to receive her Majesty's 
directions for the disposal of the standards and colours, 
whereof I have not yet the number, but guess there 
cannot be less than a hundred, which is more than has 
'been taken in any battles these many years. 

You will easily believe that in so long and vigo- 
rous an action, the English, who had so great a share 
in it, must have suffered, as w r ell in officers as men, 
but I have not yet the particulars. 

I am, Sir, 
Your most obedient humble servant, 
Marlborough. 



78 ENGLISH STYLE. 

(4.) Lord Nelson's celebrated despatch of the battle 
of the Nile : — 



To Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, K.B., Commander- 
in-chief. 

" Vanguard," off the mouth of the Nile, 
August 3rd, 1798. 
My Lord, 

Almighty God has blessed his Majesty's 
arms in the late battle by a great victory over the 
fleet of the enemy, who I attacked at sunset on the 
1st of August, off the mouth of the Nile. The enemy 
were moored in a strong line of battle for defending 
the entrance of the bay (of shoals), flanked by nume- 
rous gun-boats, four frigates, and a battery of guns 
and mortars on an island in their van ; but nothing 
could withstand the squadrons your Lordship did me 
the honour to place under my command. Their high 
state of discipline is well known to you, and with the 
judgment of the captains, together with their valour, 
and that of the officers and men of every description, 
it was absolutely irresistible. Could anything from 
my pen add to the character of the captains, I would 
write it with pleasure ; but that is impossible. 

I have to regret the loss of Captain Westcott, of 
the " Majestic," who was killed early in the action ; but 
the ship was continued to be so well fought by her 
first lieutenant, Mr. Cuthbert, that I have given him 
an order to command her till your Lordship's plea- 
sure is known. 

The ships of the enemy, all but their two rear 
ships, are nearly dismasted ; and those two, with 
two frigates, I am sorry to say, made their escape ; 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 79 

nor was it, I assure you, in my power to prevent 
them. Captain Hood most handsomely endeavoured 
to do it ; but I had no ship in a condition to support 
the " Zealous," and I was obliged to call her in. 

The support and assistance I have received from 
Captain Berry cannot be sufficiently expressed. I 
was wounded in the head, and obliged to be carried 
off the deck ; but the service suffered no loss by that 
event: Captain Berry was fully equal to the im- 
portant service then going on, and to him I must beg 
leave to refer you for every information relative to 
this victory. He will present you with the flag of 
the second in command, that of the Commander-in- 
chief being burnt in " L'Orient." 

Herewith I transmit you lists of the killed and 
wounded, and the lines of battle of ourselves and the 
French. I have the honour to be, my Lord, your 
Lordship's most obedient servant, 

Horatio Nelson. 

Su bjec ts for Desp a tch es. 

1 . The outbreak of a mutiny. 

2. A march through an enemy's country. 

3. A riot at an election. 

•4. The proceedings at a meeting. 

5. A night attack on an outpost. 

6. An accident on a railway. 

7. Recent events in a British colony. 

8. A cruise along an enemy's coast. 

9. The bombardment of a sea-port. 

10. The storming of a fortress. 

11. The passage of an army through a defile. 

12. An audience of a foreign prince. 



80 ENGLISH STYLE. 



REPORTS. 



Parliamentary reports are generally very volu- 
minous ; they are the result of evidence given before 
committees appointed to inquire into some specific 
subject. Witnesses are summoned before the com- 
mittee ; their answers to questions put by the mem- 
bers (called minutes of evidence) are taken down ; 
and the report embodies the opinions formed by the 
committee on the evidence adduced before them. 
On the occasion of the appointment of a select com- 
mittee to inquire into the Education of the lower 
Orders of the Metropolis, which took place in 1816, 
as many as fifty-two witnesses were examined. The 
inquiry began on the 22nd of May, and ended on the 
19th of June, 1816; and the following report on the 
subject was issued : — 

" Your committee have examined a great body of 
evidence, which has been reported and ordered to be 
printed, respecting the state of education among the 
lower orders in the metropolis ; and they have found 
reason to conclude, that a very large number of poor 
children are wholly without the means of instruction, 
although their parents appear to be generally very 
desirous of obtaining that advantage for them. 

" Your committee have also observed, with much 
satisfaction, the highly beneficial effects produced 
upon all those parts of the population which, assisted 
in whole or in part by various charitable institutions, 
have enjoyed the benefits of education. 

"Your committee have not had time this session 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 81 

fully to report their opinion upon the different branches 
of their inquiry ; but they feel persuaded that the 
greatest advantages would result to this country from 
Parliament taking proper measures, in concurrence 
with the prevailing disposition in the community, for 
supplying the deficiency of the means of instruction 
which exists at present, and for extending this blessing 
to the poor of all descriptions. 

" Although your committee have not been instructed 
to examine the state of education beyond the metro- 
polis, they have, in addition to what has appeared in 
evidence, received communications which show the 
necessity of Parliament as speedily as possible insti- 
tuting an inquiry into the management of charitable 
donations- and other funds for the instruction of the 
poor of this country, and into the state of their educa- 
tion generally. And your committee are of opinion 
that the most effectual, as well as least expensive 
mode of conducting such an inquiry would be by means 
of a parliamentary commission. 

"20th June, 1816." 

The following list of subjects will furnish the student 
i r| with exercises in this form of writing. Jt may perhaps 
be supposed that such exercises are far too difficult for 
a learner, and that they require much more extensive 
j information than he can have possibly acquired. But 
lit is not necessary that such writings be descriptive of 
actual facts ; the subjects are only intended as sugges- 
tive, and the reports themselves may be wholly ficti- 
tious. The object here is merely to give him practice 
n a form of composition which he may probably re- 
quire in after life. 

G 



82 ENGLISH STYLE. 

Subjects for Reports. 

1. Report on the health of a regiment quartered in a 

certain locality. 

2. Report on the amount — and species — of crime in 

a certain county. 

3. On the condition of an agricultural district. 

4. On the morals of a manufacturing town. 

5. On the sanitary condition of a certain quarter of 

a city. 

6. On the habits of the population of a sea-port. 

7. On the buildings of the poor. 

8. On the literature of the day. 

9. On the commercial resources of an island. 

10. On the produce of a mining district. 

11. On the education of the poor in a certain town. 

12. On the prevalent diseases in certain localities. 

1 3. On j uvenile delinquency. 

14. On the condition of an hospital. 

15. Report on a grammar school. 

16. On the moral and religious condition of the 

English soldier. 

17. On the condition and prospects of a society (or 

company). 

18. On the increase (or decrease) of pauperism in a 

certain parish. 

19. On the examination of a class of students in 

history. 

20. On the condition of a prison. 



DESPATCHES AND REPORTS. 83 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PART II. 

1. What is a definition ? 

2. Whence is the word " definition " derived ? 

3. Of how many parts does a definition consist ? 

4. Give the names of these parts, and explain their meaning. 

5. What errors are we likely to fall into, in defining terms ? 

6. How does a description differ from a definition ? 

7. How should we proceed in describing ? 

8. To what cases may description be applied ? 

9. What is a narrative, and how does it differ from a descrip- 

tion ? 

10. To what cases may narrative be applicable ? 

1 1. What general principles should be observed in narrative ? 

12. What style should be adopted in writing a letter ? 

13. What general rules apply to this form of writing ? 

14. What general qualities of style are required in a despatch or 

or report ? 



G 2 



84 



PART III. 

FORMS OF ARGUMENT. 



ARGUMENTS. 

Composition, properly so called, does not consist 
merely of a string of assertions or remarks. In every 
well- written piece, the propositions and general asser- 
tions must be explained, illustrated, or supported. It 
is necessary, in order to show that our opinions are 
correct, that they be proved by arguments. There 
are, indeed, some propositions so obviously true, that 
they require no proof, — they are admitted at once: 
and as every one allows them to be true, they cannot 
be made subjects of argument. For instance, no one 
would seriously think of employing his reasoning 
powers in proving the truth that "two and two make 
four," or that "two straight lines cannot enclose a 
space," &c. But there are many other conclusions of 
a different nature, and which, though true, may require 
explanation or illustration, and this explanation, in all 
forms of composition, is expected of the writer. 

The means by which opinions are proved are called 
"arguments," and these are derived from various 
sources ; that is, we may prove the truth of an asser- 



ARGUMENT. 85 

tion not by one, but by many forms of argument. 
The opinion is the conclusion at which we have arrived 
on any subject, and arguments show our reasons for 
arriving at that conclusion. 

The following are some of the sources whence argu- 
ments may be derived : — 



1. Enumeration. 

2. Contrast. 

3. Explanation. 

4. Cause and effect. 

5. Experience. 

6. History. 

7. General or universal consent. 



8. Proverbs. 

9. Sayings or quotations. 

10. Analogy. 

11. Fables. 

12. Example. 

13. Interrogation. 



I. ENUMERATION. 

In the majority of cases, our ideas are not simple, 
' but complex ; that is, they are made up of all the 
qualities belonging to some one thing. Now, in argu- 
ing by enumeration, all we have to do is to state these 
r particulars, so that our view of the whole subject may 
be clearly understood. The following model will ex- 
plain this form of reasoning : — 



Given proposition . . . "It was a lovely night!" 

It ivas a lovely night I The sky was unclouded. 
The brilliant moon, riding aloft in the heavens, cast 
her silvery light o'er hill and valley, meadow and 
lake. Scarcely a breeze ruffled the surface of the 
water, and not a sound was heard save the distant 
plash of the boatman's oar, or the occasional rustling 
of the leaves of a neighbouring grove. A balmy air 
wafted an exquisite fragrance through the atmosphere, 

G 3 



86 ENGLISH STYLE. 

and all nature seemed to conspire to fill the soul with 
delight ! 

The above passage consists of a collection of those 
particulars or circumstances jvhich combine in making 
up the idea of a "lovely night." Moon, hill, valley, 
meadow, lake, leaves, fragrant perfume, &c, are these 
particulars, and these, arranged in order, support the 
assertion. 

The following propositions are intended as subjects 
for exercise in this form of argument. They are to 
be worked on the principle explained in the above 
model. 

Propositions to be supported by Enumeration. 

1. Spring is the most beautiful season of the year. 

2. He was a very amusing companion. 

3. My cousin is a learned man. 

4. His sister was very accomplished. 

5. Mr. B. is a great traveller. 

6. England is the most commercial country in the 

world. 

7. Italy has produced many great artists. 

8. The Germans are a very musical people. 

9. We spent a remarkably pleasant evening. 

10. "We passed a miserable night. 

11. My friend has been seriously ill. 

12. Julius Caesar was a great commander. 

13. It was a wretched day. 

1 4. This king was of a weak character. 

15. "Paradise Lost" is a sublime poem. 

16. Louis XIV. was a despotic monarch. 

17. She is of a kind disposition. 



ARGUMENT. 87 

18. William the Conqueror oppressed the Saxons. 

19. Alfred was the greatest of the Saxon kings. 

20. The drawing-room was elegantly furnished. 

II. CONTRAST. 

The next form of argument is by contrast. Suppose 
our object be to show that some quality or line of 
conduct is commendable, we may contrast it with its 
opposite, in order that its excellence may be thus 
made more evident. Snow will appear more bril- 
liantly white when contrasted with any object of a dark 
colour ; and virtue will be more evidently desirable 
when opposed to vice. Thus, to prove the excellence 
of a good education, we may show the difference be- 
tween the refined and well-informed gentleman, and 
the rude, illiterate boor,, and this contrast will set the 
superiority of the one over the other in a stronger 
light. This form of reasoning is adopted in the follow- 
model: — 

MODEL. 

^. .^. f Society has numerous 

Given proposition . . .< , * . 

r r L advantages. 

Society has numerous advantages. Here we learn 
to practise many virtues, such as kindness, forbearance, 
benevolence, &c. Here also we have many opportuni- 
ties of improving our minds by acquiring knowledge 
on various subjects, and considering the differences of 
opinion on questions discussed, &c. But the hermit 
or recluse can never enjoy these privileges. How can 
he practise any of the social virtues who refuses to 
enter that circle where alone they can be exercised ! 
or by what means can he improve his reasoning powers 
g 4 



88 ENGLISH STYLE. 

who has no one to reason with but himself, and hears 
no opinions differing from his own ! 

The following propositions are to be used as subjects 
for exercise in arguing by contrast, as in the above 
model : — 

Propositions to be proved by arguing on the principle 
of Contrast. 

1. Some form of government is indispensable to a 

nation. 

2. We must exercise both the body and the mind. 

3. Affected people are always disagreeable. 

4. We should be kind to one another. 

5. Occasional recreation is necessary. 

6. It is our duty to obey our superiors. 

7. Knowledge ensures respect. 

8. Indulgence in violent passions is degrading to the 

mind. 

9. We should endeavour to acquire a habit of atten- 

tion. 

10. Nothing is more charming than simplicity. 

11. A habit of observation is invaluable. 

12. All our duties should be promptly performed. 

13. Travelling assists in removing prejudices. 

14. A taste for art should be cultivated. 

15. No vice is more selfish than avarice. 

16. A good temper is the main spring of happiness. 

17. We should always speak the truth. 

18. A government should be careful to reward merit. 

19. Nothing is more odious than a proud spirit. 

20. The amiable gain many friends. 






ARGUMENT. 89 

III. EXPLANATION. 

A general assertion maybe frequently supported by 
an explanation. This is done when the statement 
made is partly equivocal, or open to several meanings, 
and the object is to place it in a clearer light, and 
show in what signification the writer intends it to be 
taken. Here we argue from the genus to the species, 
and the explanation shows in what particular cases 
the general proposition holds good. 

The following model will illustrate this mode of 
argument : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition . . . Nature does nothing in vain. 

Nature does nothing in vain. It is true that we 
have not yet been able to discover the designs of 
Providence in all the works of Nature ; but the 
researches and discoveries of philosophy justify us in 
concluding that the apparently most insignificant ob- 
ject has been created for some wise purpose. Thus, 
the very leaves that fall from the trees in autumn form 
a rich soil wherein to grow new plants ; and it is well 
known that the gases given off by the most fragrant 
flowers furnish the atmosphere with one of its essen- 
tial ingredients. 

Let the learner write paragraphs on the following 
propositions, supporting them, as in the above model, 
by explanation. 

Propositions to be supported by Explanation. 

1. A new study presents many difficulties. 

2. I was much puzzled at this question. 



90 ENGLISH STYLE. 

3. Music is a charming art. 

4. Italian is the most harmonious of European lan- 

guages. 

5. English grammar is remarkable for its simplicity. 

6. Ambition is a noble passion. 

7. Christianity has greatly contributed to promote 

civilization. 

8. He was a man of excellent principles. 

9. A judge should be strictly impartial. 

10. Shakspere was the greatest of modern poets. 

11. Adversity is not without its advantages. 

12. Modesty differs from bashfulness. 

13. Every language has its characteristics. 

14. The Athenians were celebrated for their delicacy 

of taste. 

15. This style is very faulty. 

16. English is a copious and flexible language. 

17. Paper is applied to many uses. 

18. We derive much knowledge from books. 

19. Attention is indispensable to improvement. 

20. This is a most interesting work. 

IV. CAUSE AND EFFECT. (1.) 

This form of reasoning is of frequent occurrence, 
and may be applied in very numerous cases. It is 
assumed that there is a close connection between 
cause and effect ; and that if the cause be admitted as 
good, its effect must also be good. The converse of 
this proposition must hold equally true ; i. e. if the 
effect be pernicious it cannot be produced by a good 
cause. This principle is extensively used in arguing 
on questions connected with physical philosophy ; but 



& 



ARGUMENT. 91 

we shall here apply it chiefly to moral or practical 
subjects. For example, we may show that industry 
13 desirable from the success by which it is generally 
followed, or that drunkenness is a fatal vice, because 
its effects are to deprive its victim of his reason, to 
squander his estate, and to bring disgrace and ruin 
on his family. 

The following model is an example of this form of 
reasoning : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition ... . Be not suspicious. 

Be not suspicious. A man of suspicious temper is a 
torment to himself and his companions. His mind is 
never at ease. He is perpetually imagining that 
others are plotting against his peace. He gives no 
one credit for good feeling, and he thus completely 
alienates the good-will of those who would otherwise 
be interested in his welfare. If suspicion generally 
prevailed, every man would stand in fear of his neigh- 
bour, and all the bonds of society would be burst 
asunder. 

The opinions expressed in the following list of pro- 
positions are to be maintained by arguing on the 
principle of cause and effect. 

Propositions to be proved by showing the Effect, 

L We should cultivate our tastes. 

2. Indolence is a most pernicious condition of the 

mind. 

3. Decision of character is especially necessary in a 

ruler. 



92 ENGLISH STYLE. 

4. Captivity has fearful effects on the human mind. 

o. Excessive severity is to be deprecated. 

6. Address is preferable to violence. 

7. A national literature should be encouraged. 

8. Philosophy, when studied in a right spirit, pro- 

duces incalculable advantages. 

9. "Train up a child in the way he should go." 

10. A police force is necessary in every large city. 

11. It is wrong to spare the guilty. 

12. Slander must be carefully shunned. 

13. Mode of occupation affects the character. 

14. Candour is universally admired. 

15. The natural affections should be cultivated. 

16. Be kind to your companions. 

17. "A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

18. We should not contend about trifles. 

19. Opportunities must not be neglected. 

20. It is unwise to attempt to please everybody. 

IV. CAUSE AND EFFECT. (2.) 

In the last lesson, the truth of the statement was 
proved by the effect ; here the effect will appear in 
the given proposition, and we shall endeavour to show 
the cause that produced this effect. For example, if 
we state that some one has an amiable disposition, or 
is well-informed, these effects may be accounted for 
by referring to the causes which led to them, such as 
care bestowed on his moral education, various circum- 
stances of his early life, &c. 

This form of argument may be illustrated by the 
following model : — 






ARGUMENT. 93 



{The firm was in a flourishing 
condition. 

The firm was in a flourishing condition. The ex- 
perience the partners had gained in the earlier period 
of their career, had made them more cautious, and 
they avoided all dealings with those whose credit 
was not known to be firmly established. Their in- 
creased wealth had enabled them to extend their 
business so widely, that there was scarcely a place of 
any importance in the world with which they had not 
commercial transactions. 

Let the learner explain the following propositions, 
which represent effects, by showing the causes which 
led to them. 

Propositions (Effects) to be explained by stating their 
Causes. 

1. The country was now in a state of profound tran- 

quillity. 

2. Your friend is very much improved. 

3. His brother gained the prize. 

4. All the family have been in great distress. 

5. My uncle has quite regained his health. 

6. They live very happily together. 

17. Her aunt is a great invalid. 
8. She was beloved by all who knew her. 
9. Cardinal Wolsey fell into disgrace with the king. 

10. The Roman Empire fell a prey to the barbarians. 

11. He was very successful in business. 

12. The house stopped payment. 

13. The siege was raised in the beginning of the 

year. 



94 ENGLISH STYLE. 

14. His cousin was appointed to the office. , 

15. The gallant soldier was promoted on the spot. 

16. The mob broke into and plundered several houses. 

17. The condition of the poor is much improved. 

18. My friend is now become a rich man. 

19. He was in a state of great agitation. 

20. The lecturer received a handsome present from 

his pupils. 

IV. CAUSE AND EFFECT. (3.) 

Another way of reasoning upon this principle is 
when a fact or an event is stated ; and the writer 
mentions the causes which led to it, and the conse- 
quences or effects which it produced. The whole 
paragraph will here consist of three parts arranged in 
the following order : — 1. Cause ; 2. Fact; 3. Con- 
sequence : — 

The following model is constructed of three parts, 
as above explained : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition f The French Revolution broke 
(an event) ... 1 out ^ n 1789. 

1 . ( Cause.) For many years there had been symp- 
toms of wide-spread discontent throughout France. 
The people were grievously oppressed and unequally 
taxed; justice was partially administered ; the nobles 
and higher clergy enjoyed excessive and undue privi- 
leges ; and, worse than all, every grade of society was 
infected with infidelity and irreligion. It was no 
wonder that such a state of things should lead to a 
political revolution. 2. {The event) This convul- 
sion, which was to shake all Europe, and threaten the 



ARGUMENT. 95 

dissolution of society itself, dates from May 5th, 1789, 
when the States- General met to construct a new con- 
stitution. 3. ( Consequence). It caused the downfal 
of the French monarchy, the annihilation of the 
nobility, and the execution of the king and queen, 
and eventually plunged all Europe into a war, from 
the effects of which it can be scarcely said to have 
yet recovered. 

The learner is to write paragraphs constructed as 
the above model, consisting of, 1. The Cause; 2. The 
Event or Fact (expressed in the propositions given) ; 
and 3. the Effects. 

Propositions ( Facts), the Causes and Effects to be 
added. 

1. The poor man died last week. 

2. The house became bankrupt. 

3. The troops marched into the defile. 

4. He acquired a perfect knowledge of the language. 

5. The armies met at Waterloo. 

6. Columbus discovered a new world. 

7. He became heir to a large estate. 

8. The king was extremely angry. 

9. Our friends fell into misfortunes. 

10. The civil war in England broke out in 1642. 

11. Louis XIV. ravaged the Palatinate. 

12. The law was passed early in the session. 

13. The husband contracted habits of intemperance. 

14. The vessel had not her complement of men. 

15. The building was destroyed by fire. 

16. The clerk was discharged from his office. 

17. My uncle returned from India. 






96 ENGLISH STYLE* 

18. The Americans succeeded in establishing their 

independence. 

19. Napoleon became Emperor of France in 1804. 

20. He remonstrated seriously with his friends. 

V. EXPERIENCE. 

In many cases we form our conclusions from ex- 
perience. Here we argue upon the natural principle 
of inferring that what has uniformly happened under 
certain circumstances, will, under similar circum- 
stances, happen again. Thus, if we have occasion to 
observe that habits of extravagance and excessive ex- 
penditure are a frequent cause of ruin, we may fairly 
conclude that this line of conduct, in any particular 
case, will produce the same result. Experience may 
be gained from various sources, such as personal 
observation, reading, conversation, &c. As a general 
rule, experience can be gained only by age, and there- 
fore the young can hardly expect to have the same 
advantages in this respect as the more advanced in 
life. 

In the following model, this form of reasoning is 
adopted: — 

MODEL. 

~ . . . f Eloquence has a powerful 

Given proposition . . . i . n 

1 I influence. 

Eloquence has a powerful influence. This truth is 
attested by the history of all ages, both ancient and 
modern. It is well known that Philip of Macedon 
was more afraid of the thunder of Demosthenes' elo- 
quence than of the whole collective power of the 



ARGUMENT. 97 

Athenian people. And there are persons still living 
who remember and feel the wonderful sway that a 
Pitt or a Fox wielded over his audience. Who that 
has listened to the glowing words of an excited orator, 
and the insinuating tones of his voice, or seen his 
graceful and expressive gestures, and the earnestness 
of his convictions, has not felt the difficulty — not 
to say impossibility — of resisting such a fascinating- 
influence ! 

The propositions in the following list are to be 
supported by arguments drawn from experience, as 
in the above model. 

Propositions to be proved by Experience. 

1. It is wrong to irritate an angry man. 

2. There can be no success without application. 

3. No one becomes suddenly wicked. 

4. We should be prepared for the worst. 

5. A wise man is never surprised. 

6. The tongue kills more than the sword. 

7. Recreation is necessary. 

8. Excessive indulgence is pernicious. 

9. Much knowledge is gained from books. 

10. Music is a delightful art. 

11. Ambition is a natural principle. 

12. Rumour has a thousand tongues. 

13. Industry is better than brilliant talents. 

14. Curiosity is an inherent principle in human 

nature. 

15. Kindness begets kindness. 

16. Pride will have a fall. 

17. Virtue is its own reward. 

H 



98 ENGLISH STYLE. 

18. Experience is the best master. 

19. Novelty produces great pleasure. 

20. There is nothing dearer to us than our country. 

VI. HISTORY. 

History is an inexhaustible storehouse of example ; 
and cases drawn from this source are frequently quoted 
in proof of general propositions. There is scarcely a 
virture or vice incidental to human nature of which 
history does not furnish us with many examples. 
Thus, in illustration of the nobleness of generosity, we 
might cite Alexander the Great's behaviour to the 
mother and wife of Darius, or King Richard's forgive- 
ness of his brother John. Again, to show the fatal 
consequences of unrestrained passion, we might quote 
the case of Henry the Second's exclamation against 
Becket, or the circumstances of the death of Valen- 
tinian the First. Of course, the more extensive our 
historical reading, the greater the number of examples 
we shall have to refer to ; but a tolerable knowledge of 
English history alone will furnish cases applicable to 
a very great variety of subjects. 

In the following model, the proofs are drawn from 
history : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition . . S ^ civil war generally leads 
1 L ^ to despotism. 

A civil ivar generally leads to despotism. This 
would seem to be a natural consequence of intestine 
division. One of the contending parties gains the 
upper hand, and establishes a despotic power over the 



ARGUMENT. 99 

other. The quarrels of Athens and Sparta eventually 
led to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans ; the 
civil wars of Rome were followed by the establishment 
of an empire ; and in modern times, the horrors of 
the French Revolution ended in the absolute power of 
Napoleon the First. 

This form of argument is to be applied to the 
following : — 

Propositions to be illustrated or proved by historical 
Examples. 

1. Be not daunted by difficulties. 

2. Unity is strength. 

3. Perseverance will at length succeed. 

4. Take time by the forelock. 

5. Bad examples are infectious. 

6. Occupation keeps both body and mind healthy. 

7. " What great events from trivial causes spring ! " 

8. Honesty is the best policy. 

9. Trivial actions betray the real character. 

10. None are completely happy. 

11. Resist the first temptations to evil. 

12. Necessity is the mother of invention. 

13. " A soft answer turneth away wrath." 

14. " Too much familiarity breeds contempt." 

15. The fine arts assist civilisation. 

16. Luxury is destructive of liberty. 

17. Learning tends to virtue. 

18. Climate affects national character. 

19. " There's no art to know the mind's construction 

in the face." 

20. Nothing is impossible to a strong will. 

H 2 



100 ENGLISH STYLE. 



VII. GENERAL OR UNIVERSAL CONSENT. 

What most people agree in believing, is likely to be 
true in the abstract ; but when we can show that a 
certain opinion is held universally, this is one of the 
strongest arguments that can be adduced in its support. 
We must not, however, carry this principle too far ; 
for large multitudes of men have frequently held, and 
acted on, opinions which proved to be erroneous. 
But, in general, the rule that " the consent of mankind 
is the voice of nature," is a sound principle, and one 
which may be made a solid foundation for many actions 
and opinions. Thus, one argument to prove the exis- 
tence of God may be drawn from the universality of 
this belief ; as it is well known that by all men, and 
in all ages, a belief in a Supreme Being has existed. 

The reasoning in the following model is founded 
upon this principle : — 

MODEL. 

r,. ... [ No nation can exist with- 

Given proposition . . . { 

r r ^ out a government 

The necessity for some form of government has been 
always so keenly felt, that no community was ever 
known to exist without it. Its form may, and does, 
vary in various countries ; but no human power has 
ever been strong enough to abolish it altogether. 
Even in cases of the wildest civil discord, the first 
thing done by successful revolutionists is to form a 
new, or at least a provisional, government ; for every 
one feels that without some rule, no man's life would 
be safe for a moment. It was said by an eminent 



ARGUMENT. 101 

historian, that men may go without food for twenty- 
four hours, but that they cannot dispense with a 
government for that space of time. 

The arguments on the propositions in the list below 
are to be drawn from the principle of general or uni- 
versal consent. 

Propositions proved by general or universal Consent. 

1. Virtue is its own reward, and vice its own punish- 

ment. 

2. We should avoid extremes. 

3. Wealth has great influence. 

4. Do to others as you would be done by. 

5. It is never too late to mend. 

6. " Worth makes the man, and want of it the 

fellow." 

7. A liar is never to be believed. 

8. A marshy country produces fever. 

9. Ignorance and crime go hand in hand. 

10. " Evil communications corrupt good manners." 

11. No man would deal with a known rogue. 

12. A large body of men never agree on one subject. 

13. Variety is charming. 

14. Novelty is the chief pleasure in travelling. 

15. Rational beings are responsible for their actions. 

16. Trials are the lot of human nature. 

17. Pride alienates friends. 

18. The most commercial nations are the most wealthy. 

19. Virtue alone produces happiness. 

20. The young can never be experienced. 



h 3 



102 ENGLISH STYLE. 



VIII. PROVERBS. 



Proverbs are short and pithy sentences, containing 
some moral or practical precept ; it is not generally 
known who was the author of these sentences ; but 
they are supposed to have originated with the common 
people, and may be regarded as the result of the 
experience, and the exponents of the practical wisdom 
of a nation. Much knowledge of national charac- 
teristics may be drawn from the study of proverbs, 
and they are frequently quoted in order to strengthen 
a position, or illustrate an opinion in arguing. Thus 
the expediency of calm deliberation in action may be 
shown in the proverb, " Most haste, worst speed ; " 
and the necessity of perseverance is illustrated in the 
saying, 6t Slow and steady wins the race," &c. 

In the following model the position is supported by 
a proverb : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition .... Appearances are deceiving. 

Most people have a very natural tendency to judge 
of things as they appear. There is little doubt that 
the first impression — whether favourable or other- 
wise — made by the sight of any object is likely to be 
deep and lasting. Nay, more ; this impression may 
interfere with our judgment of it, even when we are 
afterwards better acquainted with its nature. But 
though we may allow something to first impressions, 
it is most unwise to judge wholly by them, — and we 
should remember the truth of the proverb, " All is not 
gold that glitters/' 



ARGUMENT. 103 

The pupil is to use the following propositions as 
subjects to be illustrated by proverbs, as in the above 
model. 

Propositions to be illustrated by Proverbs. 

1. The strictest attention should be paid to early 

education. 

2. It is unwise to take trifles to heart. 

3. Let us attend to one thing at a time. 

4. We should profit by the present opportunity. 

5. Important measures should be well considered. 

6. Some good may be found in everything. 

7. No pleasure is unmixed with evil. 

8. We should not be over confident. 

9. No one should attempt a task for which he is unfit. 

10. Age brings experience. 

11. You may judge of a man's character by his com- 

panions. 

12. The imperfect should not accuse others of imper- 

fection. 

13. Be careful in small matters. 

14. Do not talk of what you do not understand. 

15. Every one should look after his own business. 

16. It is useless to bewail our misfortunes. 

17. Desultory study is of no avail. 

18. Bad example spreads rapidly. 

19. The most wonderful works may be accomplished 

by time and perseverance. 

20. Defects should be promptly remedied. 

IX. SAYINGS OR QUOTATIONS. 

It is a common practice with writers to quote pas- 
sages, or make extracts, from authors of acknowledged 

H 4 



104 ENGLISH STYLE. 






merit ; either to throw some light on their own mean- 
ing, or support their view of the question before 
them. This, however, should not be done too fre- 
quently by a young writer, as it will partially inter- 
fere with that independence of thought which every 
one should endeavour to attain. Neither is it always 
necessary that the passage quoted be in the exact 
words of the original author ; it will be sufficient if 
the substance of his meaning be given, or even if a 
passing allusion be made to his general views. But 
on no occasion should these extracts be lengthy ; as 
this would call away the reader's attention from the 
subject, and also detract considerably from the writer's 
originality. Those who are well acquainted with 
Lord Bacon's " Essays," Shakspere's Plays, or Pope's 
and Wordsworth's Poems, can never be at a loss for 
quotations on a great variety of subjects. 

The model below will illustrate this form of argu- 
ment : — 



Given proposition . . There is some good in everything. 

The natural tendency to extremes from which few 
minds are altogether free, has led many people to 
imagine that some conditions in life are wholly and 
unqualifiedly evil. But this is an error ; it seems a 
law of nature that all things should be a mixture of 
good and evil. Indeed, what is called good, means 
that in which good preponderates ; and what is gene- 
rally termed evil, means whatever we find possessing 
evil qualities which more than counterbalance the 
good. Thus, the best characters have their defects ; 



ARGUMENT. 105 

and the very worst are not without some redeeming 
quality. Poverty itself, though certainly not desirable, 
may yet be turned to account by the virtuous and 
wise ; for as Shakspere says : — 

" Sweet are the uses of adversity ; 
Which, like a toad, ugly and venomous, 
Bears yet a precious jewel in her forehead." 

The following propositions are to be illustrated by 
quotations or allusions : — 

1. We should encourage a philanthropic feeling. 

2. Indulgence in violent passion weakens the reason. 

3. When occupied, we are never lonely. 

4. A smattering of knowledge is worthless. 

5. Defer not a duty which should be done to-day. 

6. Violent changes are never lasting. 

7. There should be moderation in all things. 

8. Everything should be done at its proper time. 

9. If you wish to succeed, help yourself. 

10. Both good and evil example are infectious. 

11. Be not over familiar. 

12. Music has a cheering and civilising influence. 

13. Beware of the first steps to vice. 

14. Reputation is more precious than wealth. 

15. It is easier to preach than to practise. 

16. Men are continually deceived by appearances. 

17. The things of this world are fleeting and insigni- 

ficant. 

18. There is an end to the greatest misfortunes. 

19. Beware of a slanderous tongue. 

20. Perseverance will overcome the greatest diffi- 

culties. 



106 ENGLISH STYLE. 



X. ANALOGY. 



Reasoning by analogy is drawing conclusions about 
one subject from its resemblance to another. This 
form of argument is rather illustrative than conclusive. 
It is often employed with good effect to explain our 
meaning more clearly to the reader ; but it is scarcely 
sufficient to produce conviction. Analogy means a 
likeness, in a certain respect, between two things, 
which in other respects may be quite different. There 
is an analogy between the sovereign of a country and 
the father of a family. They are both rulers. The 
one stands in the same relation to his subjects as the 
other does to his children ; but beyond this one point 
the likeness fails, for in all other respects they may be 
different from each other. This form of reasoning is 
frequently adopted in arguing on moral or practical 
questions ; but we should take great care that our 
analogies be well founded, and that we do not argue 
concerning two things as if they were alike in all 
respects, because they resemble each other in one 
point. 

The following paragraph is modelled upon the prin- 
ciple of analogy : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition .... Perfect equality is impossible. 

Obedience is one of those principles by which 
society is held together. Take it away, and the 
whole fabric falls to the ground. Without it, none of 
the business of life could be carried on. There would 
be neither king nor subject, commander nor soldier, 



ARGUMENT. 107 

master nor servant. The opinion that there should be 
no difference of rank in society is about as absurd as 
to expect that all trees or all mountains should be of 
the same size, or that all men should be of the same 
height. No ; Providence, for the wisest purposes, has 
created an infinite variety in external nature, and most 
undoubtedly intended a similar variety to exist in the 
moral world. 

The propositions in the following list are to form 
the subjects of short paragraphs, and are to be argued 
upon as in the above model. 

Propositions to be illustrated by Analogy. 

1. Human life is brief and transitory. 

2. The barbarians invaded the Roman Empire. 

3. All that's bright must fade. 

4. Nothing could appease his anger. 

5. His head was turned by his success. 

6. He had lost all his former tastes. 

7. The conversation flagged. 

8. The cholera appeared in the country. 

9. The poor child died of a fever. 
10. She was deeply afflicted. 

1 ] . The lady was gorgeously dressed. 

12. The gentleman has great powers of conversation. 

13. He is of a most benevolent disposition. 

14. My friend was in high spirits at the news. 

15. A precocious genius is seldom lasting. 

16. There are limits to human knowledge. 

17. The stately ship cleaves the calm waters. 

18. Repeated attempts will at length succeed. 

19. Treat others as you would be treated yourself. 

20. Indolence corrodes the mind. 



108 ENGLISH STYLE. 



XI. FABLES. 

Another form of reasoning is where the writer 
refers to, or quotes, a fable in support of his position. 
Fables are short stories in which animals or inanimate 
objects carry on the action, and which convey some 
moral lesson. The principle " example before precept " 
is here literally fulfilled, for the example is found in 
the story of the fable, and the precept in the moral 
which follows it. In the fable of the " Hare and the 
Tortoise," we are taught the superiority of steady and 
determined perseverance over a brilliant but irregular 
genius ; and from the fable of the " Dog and Shadow," 
we draw a lesson against greediness. 

The following model will show T how this form of 
reasoning may be practised : — 

MODEL. 

Given proposition .... Listen not to flattery. 

There is nothing more pernicious to the character 
than to listen to flattery. It increases our vanity, 
gives us a false idea of ourselves, and becomes an in- 
surmountable barrier to all improvement. For it is ob- 
viously impossible for one who believes all the fulsome 
adulation poured into his ear, to make any progress 
either in knowledge or virtue ; and he is sure at length 
to fall a victim to one who will profit by his folly. 
Had not the crow lent a willing ear to the artful in- 
sinuations of the fox, she would not have had to mourn, 
when too late, the consequences of her silly vanity. 



ARGUMENT. 109 

Propositions to be supported by reference to Fables. 

1. A known liar is never believed. 

2. We must take the consequences of disregarding 

good advice. 

3. Honesty is the best policy. 

4. Every one should provide for a future emergency. 

5. Industry is the only sure road to wealth. 

6. Envy makes ourselves as well as others miserable. 

7. It is mean and cowardly to insult the unfortunate. 

8. Great boasters are generally great cowards. 

9. Persuasion is better than force. 

10. Affectation is sure to meet with ridicule. 

1 1 . A comfortable competency is preferable to splendid 

affluence. 

12. We should never despise even the weakest. 

13. Innocence falls an easy victim to tyranny. 

14. Consider well the consequences of a change. 

15. It is no merit to abstain from vices we cannot 

practise. 

16. Those who claim more than their due will get 

less than their due. 

17. We should not be over sanguine. 

18. Do not attempt a task beyond your strength. 

19. Heaven assists the industrious. 

20. Be not dazzled by a brilliant appearance. 

XII. EXAMPLES. 

When we reason from examples, we adduce cases, 
drawn either from public or private life, in support of 
the proposition we desire to prove. It is better, 
when it can be done, to accumulate examples, as the 
greater the number of them that can be brought to 



110 ENGLISH STYLE. 

support our opinion, the more likely are we to produce 
conviction on our reader's mind. By this form of 
reasoning, Mr. Aiken endeavours to show that wars 
were more frequent, destructive, and cruel before the 
invention of fire-arms. With this view, he cites ex- 
amples of the wars among the states of Greece, those 
of Rome, the innumerable attacks of the northern 
barbarians on the Roman Empire, and the millions of 
human beings that fell in the Crusades. 

The following model will illustrate this form of 
reasoning : — 

MODEL. 

^. . A . f A literary age follows some 

Given proposition . . . < ,.,. *i Z i 

r r L political struggle. 

It has been frequently remarked, that the period 
of the highest literary glory of civilised nations is 
generally found to follow close on some remarkable 
or portentous achievements in commerce or in war. 
Among the ancient Greeks, the combination of great 
literary names in the age of Pericles follows the 
defeat of the Persians. The Roman age of Augustus, 
when that mighty nation was resting from her con- 
quests, produced the same galaxy of genius. In the 
same way, the famous literary age of Louis XIV. was 
certainly prepared, if not produced, by the religious 
wars of the Reformation, and after the national enthu- 
siasm had been excited by the success of the French 
arms in Germany and Flanders. In our own case, a 
gigantic revolution had been accomplished. The in- 
tellect of England had been engaged in a violent 
struggle for religious liberty, and the nation now 
started on its race of poetical immortality. 



ARGUMENT. Ill 

Propositions to be illustrated by Example. 

1. True genius is always accompanied by judgment. 

2. All historians are in some degree prejudiced. 

3. To gain fame, hard labour is indispensable. 

4. Without sacrifice, there is no virtue. 

5. The more we have, the more we desire. 

6. Some labour is paid higher than other. 

7. Some habits are injurious to bodily health. 

8. Many advantages result from the invention of 

machinery. 

9. The favour of princes is not to be trusted. 

10. Every language has its peculiar expressions. 

11. Every relation of life has its duties. 

12. Ancient Greece produced many great dramatists. 

13. The results of some battles have been particularly 

important. 

14. The drama is an early form of literature. 

15. All literary nations have had their fabulists. 

16. Literature flourished in Queen Elizabeth's reign. 

17. Napoleon was surrounded by a brilliant staff. 

18. Several wars of succession took place in the 18th 

century. 

19. The library contains several classes of books. 

20. Mary, Queen of Scots, was noted for her mis- 

fortunes. 

XIII. INTERROGATION. 

We reason by interrogation when we ask questions, 
not for information, but to give force to our opinions, 
and thus impress them more deeply on others. This 
is done in several ways ; sometimes it makes an asser- 
tion more emphatic, as when we appeal to the feelings 



112 ENGLISH STYLE. 

or common sense of others, to persuade them of a 
truth. Sometimes it removes an objection, or brings 
forward points of comparison, and thus shows the 
superiority of one thing over another. In such cases, 
the conclusion is not expressed, but is left to be drawn 
by the reader ; so that though accomplished by dif- 
ferent means, the effect is the same ; as : Can we 
doubt that honesty is preferable to fraud or deceit ? 
Would any man of common sense choose to live in 
continual fear of detection and its consequences rather 
than pass his days in the calm consciousness of recti- 
tude ? Is it possible to conceive that one whose heart 
is not thoroughly depraved, or whose moral sense is 
not deeply corrupted, could deliberately make such a 
choice ? 

The following model may serve to illustrate this 
form of writing : — 

MODEL. 

^ . .,. f God directs and supports 

briven proposition . . . < .1 . rr 

r r ^ the universe. 

Who continually supports and governs this stupen- 
dous system ? Who preserves ten thousand times ten 
thousand worlds in perpetual harmony ? Who enables 
them always to observe such time, and obey such laws, 
as are most exquisitely adapted for the perfection of 
the wondrous whole ? They cannot preserve and direct 
themselves ; for they were created, and must, there- 
fore, be dependent. How then can they be so actuated 
and directed, but by the unceasing energy of the 
Great Supreme ? 



ARGUMENT. 113 

Propositions to be supported by Interrogation. 

1. Waste not your affection in useless lamentations. 

2. The Gospel provides a remedy for all human 

evils. 

3. The miser is devoid of all sympathy. 

4. The life of man is a vain shadow. 

5. The soldiers performed the part of gallant men. 

6. No man is completely happy in this world. 

7. Death is the season which brings our affections 

to the test. 

8. Reflection is the guide which leads to truth. 

9. We should make the best use of our time. 

10. Conversation is an agreeable mode of information. 

11. No one can tell how long he may live. 

12. It is dangerous to trust even the best of men w r ith 

too much power. 

13. These atrocities call for the most indignant repre- 

hension. 

14. Money should not be withdrawn from circulation. 

15. None have a juster right than the English to boast 

of their progress. 

16. Mathematical studies are essential to a good edu- 

cation. 

17. By the power of language we are enabled to be 

useful to others. 

18. Knowledge is better than riches. 

19. Education promotes the cause of religion. 

20. History is a storehouse of universal knowledge. 

As a further exercise in argument, the learner is 
required to write paragraphs on each of the following 
propositions, supporting them by several* forms of ar- 

i 



114 ENGLISH STYLE. 

gument, and explaining the forms he adopts for that 
purpose ; as : 

MODEL. 

^. . x . [Idle reports should not be 

Given proposition . | repe £ ted . 

Idle reports should not be repeated ; for they are 
then likely to seriously injure many a reputation. The 
act grows into a habit, and if the habit become con- 
firmed, whose fair name will be secure from slander ! 
As one drop of acid will affect a large quantity of 
water, so will a whole society become tainted by the 
idle talking of one thoughtless gossip. 

Here the first proposition is maintained by showing 
the consequences or effects of idle talk. The more 
serious consequences are then shown in the case of its 
becoming a habit, and the form of the argument is 
by exclamation. Lastly, the third form of support 
is by analogy. As the drop of acid is to the water, 
so is the idle talker to a whole community. 

Let the following propositions be argued in various 
ways, as in the above example : — 

Propositions to be maintained by several Arguments, 

1 . We think that this question should be reconsidered. 

2. I believe this statement to be substantially correct. 

3. This author's style is exceedingly admired. 

4. The reign of Queen Anne was celebrated as a 

literary age. 
o. We must not dispute about tastes. 
6. Hypocrisy is the homage which vice renders to 

virtue. 
7/ The only things of which we need be ashamed, 

are sin and ignorance. 



ARGUMENT. 115 

8. " Practice makes perfect." 

9. There is a great difference between practice and 

precept. 

10. Those who perform services to their country- 

should not go unrewarded. 

11. History contributes to divest us of our prejudices. 

12. Poverty raises up the arts. 

13. Difference of opinion should not be considered an 

evil. 

14. Truth is said to lie in a well. 

15. Apprehension often interferes with duty. 

16. This plan was unsuccessful. 

17. Praise should be given judiciously. 

18. The whole campaign was a series of defeats. 

19. John was the worst king that ever sat on the 

English throne. 

20. Few are wholly without ambition. 

21. Self-indulgence produces irresolution and gene- 

ral weakness of character. 

22. Some nations have been celebrated for their deli- 

cacy of taste. 

23. A good critic looks at both sides of the question. 

24. Every one should give something to the poor. 

25. Ignorance and crime go hand in hand. 

26. The selfish are never happy. 

27. There is a difference between patience and 

apathy. 

28. It is difficult to say great things in few and simple 

words. 

29. We should never anticipate misfortunes. 

30. Every station has its trials. 

31. Clearness is the first quality of style. 

i 2 



116 ENGLISH STYLE. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PAET III. 

1. What is the difference between an assertion and an argu- 

ment? 

2. What propositions require no proof ? 

3. Mention some of the sources of argument. 

4. What is meant by arguing by enumeration ? 

5. How may the principle of " contrast " be used as a source of 

argument ? 

6. What is arguing by explanation ? 

7. In what cases may the principle of " cause and effect " be 

applied to support a statement ? 

8. Explain the form of argument by experience. 

9. How may history be used in illustration or in proof of 

assertions ? 

10. What other forms of argument may be occasionally ap- 

plied ? 

11. For what purpose is analogy generally applied in reasoning ? 

12. How is the form of interrogation applicable in support of 

an opinion ? 



117 



PART IV. 

SUBJECTS. 



SUBJECTS FOE COMPOSITION. 

Subjects for composition have various forms. Some- 
times a single word may be chosen for this purpose, 
as Order, Education, Philosophy ; another form is 
where a general proposition is made a subject for 
writing, as, " The study of art should not be 
neglected ;" or a proverb, as, "Fortune favours the 
brave." A third is when we are desired to write 
" On the advantages of a college education," or "On 
the evils produced by bad example," &c. 

In all these forms of composition, the writer should 
begin with some general introductory remarks, which 
will naturally lead to the subject, and prevent the 
ungraceful and abrupt effect that would be produced 
by plunging at once into the question proposed. A 
definition is not always necessary ; but if the subject 
is to be treated in a special or particular sense, it is 
indispensable that we explain that meaning, in order 
to prevent any misapprehension on the part of the 
reader. This will appear especially necessary when 
we remember that many subjects may be treated in a 

i 3 



118 ENGLISH STYLE. 

great variety of ways. For example, Education is a 
word of wide acceptation, and might be made the sub- 
ject of as many different themes or exercises as it has 
meanings: — 1. The process of strengthening the rea- 
soning powers ; 2. The cultivation of the taste ; 3. 
Moral training; 4. Bodily exercise, &c. Opinions 
to be given and maintained on these different mean- 
ings of the word would obviously be distinct from 
each other. 

In writing a simple theme, our opinions should be 
merely general, and we should bear in mind that the 
whole object of the composition is to prove the truth 
of those opinions. The previous chapter on " Forms 
of Argument " will be of assistance in this part of the 
exercise ; but it may be as well to mention that it is 
not necessary — if indeed possible — to apply all the 
forms of argument there explained to every subject ; 
and that in arranging the arguments, it is advisable 
that they rise in power as the writer proceeds, so that 
the strongest be reserved for the last. Thus, the accu- 
mulation of well-founded arguments, and their con- 
tinual increase of power, will produce the desired 
effect of convincing the reader of the correctness of 
our views. When the arguments are thus arranged, 
the whole theme should be brought to a close by 
summing up, — that is, touching briefly upon some of 
the leading arguments already adduced. 

The following theme on avarice will perhaps more 
fully illustrate these observations. 

ON AVARICE. 

(Introduction.} Of all subjects of thought, the human 
character is perhaps the most difficult and perplexing 



SUBJECTS. 119 

to understand. It is made up of so many and such 
contradictory qualities, and these are intermingled so 
closely and in such different proportions, that it re- 
quires all the shrewdness and sagacity of the highest 
intellect to unravel these perplexities so as clearly 
to expose the whole character to view. Of many dis- 
positions, it can scarcely be said that they are 
positively either good or bad, — the various feelings 
and passions of our nature being so blended, that it is 
difficult to determine whether the good or the evil 
preponderates. 

(Definition.) But whenever we meet with a man 
devoted to the accumulation of money, and living for 
that sole purpose, (opinion) we unhesitatingly condemn 
such a disposition as unworthy a human being, and 
pernicious to general society. Now this is not a par- 
ticular opinion ; it is one held by a very large majority 
of mankind, and from which few, if any, will be found 
to dissent. 

How comes it that men seem universally — and, as 
it were, instinctively — to condemn this vice ? By what 
internal feeling are they urged invariably to abhor the 
practices of the miser, and shun all intercourse with 
him? (1st argument: the nature of things.) The 
cause seems to lie deeply rooted in the nature of hu- 
manity. We feel, without any direct process of rea- 
soning, that such a man is wanting in all those emo- 
tions and affections we naturally look for in human 
beings. (2nd argument: effects on self.) He is not 
like ordinary men ; he has no benevolence, no kindness, 
no charity, no sympathy. He takes no interest in his 
species, and is equally indifferent to strangers and his 
more immediate relations. 



120 ENGLISH STYLE. 

The truth is that his whole soul is absorbed in the 
one devouring passion — money-getting. For this he 
sacrifices all the better affections of his nature ; he 
hardens his heart against all the claims of relation- 
ship, friendship, and love, and he lives an isolated 
being in the midst of his fellows, bound to this earth 
by no other tie than that iron chain of avarice which 
corrodes his whole soul, and rivets him night and day 
to his beloved treasures. 

(3rd argument : effects on others.) But, to say no 
more of the wretched condition of the miser's mind, 
we may consider the injury he does to society. 
He withdraws large sums of money from circulation. 
This is of itself a great evil. Money, like knowledge, 
does no good till it is spread. It is as injurious to 
the best interests of mankind to accumulate and hoard 
riches, as it would be if every discoverer of a prin- 
ciple, or inventor of a machine, were to keep the secret 
in his own breast, and not reveal it to the world. 
Nothing can be clearer than that, in such a state of 
things, it would be impossible for civilisation to 
advance, or for any improvement to take place in the 
social condition of the world. 

(Causes.) This vice, fortunately for society, is of 
comparatively rare occurrence. It is seldom found in 
youth, and not very often in the middle period of life, 
but is almost wholly confined to old age. It may be 
difficult to explain why it should be so. Perhaps this 
passion attacks those who have outlived all their other 
affections, and is the last evidence of that " necessity 
to love " which would appear to be an essential part of 
man's nature. Sometimes it may be the offspring of a 
laudable economy, which is allowed to degenerate into 



SUBJECTS. 121 

parsimony, and which at length ends in that terrible 
condition we have endeavoured to describe in the 
earlier part of this paper. 

(Conclusion.) Surely, then, no one can, without 
shuddering, contemplate the possibility of being 
brought into such a state. The very term u miser " 
implies misery. " Nemo miser felix." It is impossible 
for a miser to be happy ; and as happiness is our 
being's end and aim, every one must see that it would 
be the height of folly to endeavour to obtain it by such 
means. Let us desire wealth not for selfish, but for 
benevolent, purposes — to do good to others ; and if 
we have it, let us put it to its proper use, but never 
fall into the wicked absurdity of imagining that the 
possession of hoarded riches will add one iota to our 
real welfare. 

The following sketches may be of assistance to the 
writer in his first attempts at composition in general 
subjects. 

MORAL SUBJECTS. 
I. ON ANGER. 

Introduction. 1. Human passions — enumerate — 
benevolent and malevolent. To which class does 
anger belong ? 

2. Origin of anger — temperament — habits, &c. 

Describe degrees of anger. 

3. General opinion — passions to be controlled. 

4. Effects on ourselves, weakness of intellect — mad- 

ness; on others, injustice — bodily injury, &c. 

5. All excess must be wrong (explain). 



122 ENGLISH STYLE. 

3. Mortification — humiliation — scandal — bad ex- 
ample. 

7. Virtue consists in control, not in extinction, of 

feeling. 

8. Conclusion. 

II. ON IDLENESS. 

Introduction. Activity a universal principle — even 
in inanimate objects (explain). 

1. We must do something ; if not right, wrong. Action 

must be directed. 

2. Causes of idleness. Want of steadiness of charac- 

ter ; neglect of the cultivation of the mind in 
youth, &c. 

3. Results of idleness. Positive ignorance, or imper- 

fect knowledge, a smattering (go into particulars). 

4. Contrast Show the difference between an idle 

and an occupied man. 

5. Analogy. Iron will corrode, stagnant water will 

putrefy, &c. 

6. Do the indolent perform their duties ? 

7. Is it possible for the idle to make a reputation ? 

8. Conclusion. What inference is to be drawn ? 

III. ON FALSEHOOD. 

Introduction. A natural antipathy between the 
true and false. 

1. Various forms of falsehood — cheating — fraud — 

the lie — equivocation — prevarication (explain). 

2. Falsehood held in universal detestation by the good. 

3. The false are base, mean, dishonourable ; the truth- 

ful, open, candid, frank, &c. 

4. No trust or reliance can be placed, either in word 

or deed, in the false. 



SUBJECTS. 123 

5. Motive for falsehood — always bad ; to gratify 

selfishness — to conceal faults, &c. 

6. Avoid beginnings — exaggerations — white lies, &c. 

7. Does harm both to ourselves and others ; bad ex- 

ample ; makes others distrustful, &c. 

8. Conclusion. Motives for avoiding falsehood, &c. 



IV. ON PRIDE. 

Introduction. Vices frequently the excess of proper 
feelings. Prodigality springs from liberality ; avarice 
from economy, &c. 

1. In what pride consists, and whence its origin. 

2. Arguments against it. Its injustice — it refuses 

to recognise the merit of others. 

3. It destroys sympathy ; removes us from intercourse. 

The proud solitary. * 

4. Universally disliked ; when absent, the jest of 

society. 

5. The proud cannot be happy — pride engenders a 

thousand miseries in the heart. 

6. The source of many vices (enumerate). 

7. Pride incompatible with improvement. 

8. Conclusion. Self-confidence desirable — but carry 

it not to excess — do justice both to yourselves 
and others. 

V. ON CONTENTMENT. 

Introduction. Difference between the happy and 
the unhappy depends much on self — the feelings to 
be cherished to make ourselves happy. 



124 ENGLISH STYLE. 

1. Why contentment is such a blessing. 

2. It removes envy, jealousy, malice, &c. — all tor- 

menting passions. 

3. Not annoyed by reverses ; adapts itself easily to 

changes of fortune. 

4. Contrast, Condition of the discontented. 

5. Describe the feelings consequent upon contentment. 

6. All the wealth and power of this world insufficient 

to satisfy (therefore ?). 

7. " Not he who has most, but he who desires least, is 

happy." 

8. Conclusion, Motives for contentment. 



VI. ON AFFECTATION. 

Introduction. Many failings which interfere with 
the improvement of character (enumerate). 

1. What is affectation? its origin, its various forms, 

and at what period of life is it most frequently 
found ? 

2. Arguments against. It is dishonest — imposture 

a species of falsehood. 

3. It is unwise and ridiculous — it never succeeds. 

4. Contrast it with truthful simplicity. 

5. Unnatural and artificial. 

6. Leads to positive falsehood — the beginning of a 

great evil. 

7. Troublesome and difficult to support a false cha- 

racter. 

8. Conclusion. Be what you would seem. 



SUBJECTS. 125 



VII. ON LUXURY. 



Introduction. Analogy between nations and indi- 
viduals — similar causes produce similar effects (ex- 
plain). 

1. What is luxury? — and what may be its causes ? 

2. State its effects on the mind. 

3. The bad example it sets to others. 

4. Incompatible with health either of mind or body. 

5. Leads to extravagance, ruin of fortune. 

6. Historical examples — Lucullus, Cleopatra, &c. 

7. Fall of Rome — French Revolution. — How con- 

nected with these events ? 

8. Conclusion. Motives for its avoidance. 

VJH. ON PLEASURE. 

Introduction. All naturally seek pleasure ; but few 
understand in what it consists. 

1. Pleasure not business, but recreation from business. 

2. False sources of pleasure ; excitement, change of 

scene, accumulation of wealth, eating and drink- 
ing, &c. 

3. The effects of such — injurious to the body ; wea- 

risome to the mind. 

4. Loss of time involved in such practices. 

5. Real sources of pleasure ; practice of virtue — 

improvement of intellect — occupation, &c. 

6. Kindness to others ; assistance to the needy, &c. 

7. Moderation in all our actions. 

8. Conclusion. Temperance — a clear conscience — 

attention to business — "mens sana in corpore 
sano." 



126 ENGLISH STYLE. 



IX. ON MERCY. 



Introduction. Carry no principle too far ; justice 
must be tempered with mercy. 

1. We all require mercy, and therefore should exer- 

cise it. 

2. It has a powerful influence — binds others to us. 

3. A certain proof of goodness of disposition. 

4. Shown in our judgment of character, in our con- 

duct towards animals, &c. 

5. It assists in reforming the wicked. 

6. Shakspere's beautiful lines in the " Merchant of 

Venice : " " The quality of mercy is not strained," 
&c. 

7. It fosters all the affections of our nature, softens 

bad and violent passions. 

8. Concluding remarks. 



X. ON CHARITY. 

Introduction. Various classes of virtues — cardi- 
nal, social, &c. (explain). 

1. Many words used in too confined a sense ; the 

extensive application of the word "charity." 

2. Alms-giving — assistance to the needy — consola- 

tion to the afflicted. 

3. Difference between an active and a passive charity 

— make allowances for human imperfections. 

4. Be not inclined to think ill. 

5. The effects of the exercise of charity on ourselves 

and others. 

6. To what faults or qualities is charity opposed ? 



SUBJECTS. 127 

7. Many charitable in one sense — not in another — 

what is the test ? 

8. Conclusion. Cultivate the feeling in every sense 

— the wider our charity, the greater our sym- 
pathy. 

XI. ON REVENGE. 

Introduction. What feelings elevate, and what de- 
grade the moral character. 

1. How indignation differs from revenge. 

2. Upon what grounds we may argue against re- 

venge — produces dissatisfaction — barbarous — 
unchristian. 

3. A proof of a little and weak mind. 

4. The noblest revenge — to return good for evil. 

5. The effects of this passion — historically. 

6. The discord and enmity it perpetuates. — Italian — 

Corsican. 

7. Cause of misery and unhappiness in private life. 

8. Conclusion. Motives for forgiveness — all im- 

perfect. 

XII. ON FEAR. 

Introduction. Great variety of temperament — some 
born with qualities which others must acquire — men 
naturally bolder than women. 

1. The inconveniences and disadvantages of fear. 

2. Useful in making us provide against difficulties, 

3. Difference between a wholesome and a silly fear. 

4. Can a coward become brave ? 

5. The necessity to overcome violent fear. 



128 ENGLISH STYLE. 

6. The effects of a panic among soldiers. 

7. The wicked tormented with fears ; the virtuous 

brave. 

8. Conclusion. Motives for resisting the influence of 

fear. 

INTELLECTUAL SUBJECTS. 
I. ON KNOWLEDGE. 

Introduction. Man intellectual (explain) ; infor- 
mation gained from many sources (enumerate). 

1. No sort of knowledge to be despised. 

2. Some of a higher order — labour of intellect re- 

quired. 

3. Knowledge should be communicated and made 

practical. 

4. The influence it gives to its possessor. (" Know- 

ledge is power.") 

5. " Those that think must govern those that toil." 

6. What knowledge has done for mankind. 

7. A natural desire to discover inherent in man. 

8. Conclusion. Incentives to the acquisition of 

knowledge. 

n. ON ORDER. 

Introduction. A natural law ; always worthy of 
imitation. 

1. In what order consists : system, method, arrange- 

ment. 

2. Found in all parts of nature — an essential ingre- 

dient : day, night, the seasons, &c. 



SUBJECTS. 129 

3. This is to be imitated : arrangement assists the 

understanding ; method facilitates the acquisition 
of knowledge (give cases). 

4. Effects of personal order ; affects all our affairs ; 

books, studies, dress, occupations, &c. 

5. Order produces a great saving of time (explain). 

6. Show the effects of disorder in external things. 

7. Irregularity produces impatience, irritability, dis- 

like for learning, &c. 

8. Conclusion. Motives for being orderly — time gained 

— progress made, &c. 



HI. ON MATHEMATICS. 

Introduction. Different uses of different studies; 
some strengthen the reasoning powers, some cultivate 
the taste (explain). 

1. To which class do mathematics belong ? 

2. Effects of mathematical study — induces habit of 

thought. 

3. Prepares the mind for reasoning on practical 

matters. 

4. Makes us cautious in receiving as true what cannot 

be proved. 

5. A remedy against credulity ; modifies an impulsive 

nature. 

6. Practically useful in all sciences ; astronomy, chem- 

istry, engineering, &c. 

7. Assists us to argue clearly. 

8. Conclusion. The most satisfactory of all studies 

admits of no difference of opinion. 

K 



130 ENGLISH STYLE. 

IV. ON REASONING. 

Introduction. Difference between human beings 
and the lower animals. Principles of action. 

1. What is understood by reasoning? 

2. Are there any truths which do not require proof ? 

3. What effect has this study on the mind ? 

4. Show how this effect is communicated to others. 

5. State some of the various ways in which correct 

reasoning may be found useful. 

6. Mention some of the forms of argument, and ex- 

plain them. 

7. What should be the great object of the exercise of 

our reasoning powers ? 

8. Conclusion. How ought we to estimate this privi- 

lege — avoid its abuse? &c. 

V. ON ATTENTION. 

Introduction. The various intellectual faculties — 
for what purpose given (enumerate and explain). 

1. What is attention, and how is it employed ? 

2. Indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge. 

3. Show the necessary consequences of inattention. 

4. Memory depends mainly on the exertion of atten- 

tion. 

5. Attention a habit that must be acquired ; other- 

wise .... 

6. Easily practised upon common objects ; daily ob- 

servation, &c. 

7. All great men have had strong memories ; this 

acquired by attention. 

8. Conclusion. Take an interest in a pursuit, and 

you will soon pay attention. 



SUBJECTS. 131 



VI. ON TASTE. 



Introduction. The various views which may be 
taken of a human being (enumerate). 

1. One of these — a capacity of being pleasurably, or 

otherwise, affected by external things. 

2. This power — taste — is it inherent or acquired ? 

3. Difference between a delicate and a correct taste. 

4. Applied in all matters of art, — poetry, music, paint- 

ing, composition. 

5. Cultivation of taste modifies the matter-of-fact. 

6. A great embellishment of life. Refers to beauty, 

proportion, form, grace, colour, tone, &c. 

7. Importance of cultivating taste in the young. 

8. Conclusion. General views on this subject. 

VII. ON LEARNING. 

Introduction. The many forms and sources of 
knowledge. 

1. In what does learning consist, and where are we 

to look for it ? 

2. What is meant by the " classics ? " 

3. Show that there are modern as well as ancient 

classics. 

4. Why is this study so strongly recommended ? 

5. Why should book-knowledge be superior to many 

other forms ? 

6. Who are the most learned people in Europe ? and 

for what are we indebted to them ? 

7. To what institutions of this country do we look for 

learning ? 

x 2 



132 ENGLISH STYLE. 

8. Conclusion, Greek, Latin, mathematics, modern 
languages, history, geography, &c. 



VIII. ON LITERARY CRITICISM. 

Introduction. To. enjoy properly, we must have 
the power of discriminating and analysing. 

1. Divisions of a subject to be criticised — not judge 

of the whole, but take the parts — separately. 

2. Plot Simple, well constructed — easily understood 

— action must move on naturally. 

3. Episodes. Not too many, or they disturb the 

action : they must grow out of the subject. 

4. Characters. Well drawn — consistent — true to 

nature — gradually developed, &c. 

5. Language. Suited to the characters — generally 

clear, concise, flowing. 

6. Figures. Forcible — well applied — illustrative, 

and uniform in expression. 

7. Moral. A healthy tone — a good lesson — true 

delineation, &c. 

8. Conclusion. Critical examination points out de- 

fects, improves taste, and raises our appreciation 
of the true and beautiful. 



IX. ON SCIENCE. 

Introduction. Nature full of wonders ; these gra- 
dually unfolded as they are discovered by philosophers. 

1. Principles and laws' of nature immutable and 

universal. 

2. All art is built upon these principles* 



SUBJECTS. 133 

3. Difference between the abstract and practical 

sciences. 

4. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, &c. (abstract) ; agri- 

culture, chemistry, surveying, &c. (practical). 

5. The application of science to the wants of social life. 

6. Various divisions of physical science — natural 

philosophy. 

7. The natural and proper effect of the study of sci- 

ence: " Look through Nature up to Nature's God." 

8. Conclusion. The study inexhaustible — the spirit 

in which it should be followed. 

X. ON ASSOCIATION. 

Introduction* Many sources of pleasure and pain. 
Reflections on past scenes, &e. Ideas never come 
singly, but in a train. 

1. The power of linking ideas together, so as to pro- 

duce a train of thought. 

2. A great assistance to the memory : technical 

memories formed upon this principle. 

3. Many causes of association ; scenes, music, faces, 

even tastes (explain). 

4. Whether association causes more pleasure or pain. 

5. Pleasures of memory — pleasures of hope. 

6. How it happens that contrast is a frequent source 

of association. 

7. False associations — beware of forming them : be- 

cause two qualities may be found in the same 
person, this is no proof that they are always 
found together, or that the one causes the other. 

8. Conclusion, The general advantages of this 

power. 

k 3 



134 ENGLISH STYLE. 



XI. ON CURIOSITY. 



Introduction. A desire for knowledge is a strong 
principle in the human mind (explain). 

1. The term "curiosity " used in two senses — a well- 

and an ill-directed curiosity. 

2. The one is an abuse of the other (explain). 

3. Some things not proper, other things not expedient, 

for us to know. 

4. State and contrast the effects of both these 

feelings. 

5. Science and literature both much indebted to this 

desire. 

6. In what cases is an idle curiosity shown ? 

7. On what subjects should we encourage this 

feeling ? 

8. Conclusion. Take care not to abuse the principle. 

Let us wish to know what is worth knowing. 



XII. ON PHILOSOPHY. 

Introduction. Some subjects much more extensive 
than others ; this embraces everything — universal 
knowledge. 

1. Philosophy — an inquiry into the nature of things. 

2. Two divisions — physical and mental (explain). 

3. Mention some branches of physical philosophy, and 

explain them. 

4. Metaphysics — an inquiry into the nature of the 

mind and its faculties (explain). 

5. Which of these two studies is the more difficulty 

natural or metaphysical philosophy ? 



SUBJECTS. 135 

6. Philosophy of the ancient Greeks. Mention some 

of their absurdities and their systems. 

7. Philosophy of the middle ages — astrology, alchemy 

&c. 

8. Conclusion. A noble study; but let it be well 

directed. 

LITERARY SUBJECTS. 

I. ON LITERATURE. 

Introduction. Studies which increase our know- 
ledge of human nature hold a high rank: political 
history, biography, poetry, &c. 

1. Literature — the lasting monument of. a nation's 

mind — closely connected with the history of a 
people* 

2. Indication of passing events — national excitement 

— revolution — religious or political struggles, 
&c. 

3. Various forms of literature : epic poetry — ballads 

— the drama — history, biography, fiction, phi- 
losophy, &c. 

4. The abuses of literature ; various merits of writers. 

5. Every phase of a nation's existence indicated in 

the passing literature of the day — ballads, 
journals, periodicals, reviews, &c. 

6. Ages of English literature, and what produced 

them, 

7. A general knowledge of European literature, a 

necessary part of every good education. 

8. Conclusion. The variety, extent, and advantages 

of this study. 

K 4 



136 ENGLISH STYLE. 



II. ON HISTORY. 



Introduction. Many forms of study, some more 
popular than others. History included in every sys- 
tem of education. 

1. Why the study of history should be so interesting. 

2. In what does its utility consist ? 

3. Something more than a mere list of facts. Causes, 

effects, motives, &c. 

4. Show what moral lessons may be drawn from 

history. 

5. Mention other studies which are involved in the 

study of history. 

6. Divisions of history : for what purpose. Sacred 

and profane, ancient and modern, &c. 

7. With what history should we be best acquainted ? 

8. Conclusion. The philosophy of history — advan- 

tages of this study. 

III. ON BIOGRAPHY. 

Introduction. Many forms of history — biography 
one : history in miniature. 

1. Show the special uses of biography ; private cha- 

racter, mental and moral. 

2. How is biography less difficult to understand than 

history? — attention concentrated on the subject 
— less distraction. 

3. A better example for a rule of conduct in private 

life. 

4. Can we depend on the truth of biography ? 

5. What is autobiography, and what reliance can be 

placed on this form of literature? 



SUBJECTS. 137 

6. Biography perpetuates the memory of great men — 

makes us emulate their virtues, &c. 

7. Characters whose lives have been written: sol- 

diers, sailors, jurists, divines, poets, philosophers, 
philanthropists, literary and scientific men, &c. 

8. Conclusion, Great variety — wide scope for imita- 

tion and improvement. 

IV. ON POETRY. 

Introduction. Various forms of language. Two 
great divisions — poetry and prose. 

1. A distinction to be made between the outward 

appearance and the essence of poetry. 

2. Appearance — verse, metre, rhyme, &c. (explain). 

3. Essence — figurative language — whence does this 

originate ? 

4. A natural tendency in the mind to believe that 

inanimate objects have the power to feel and act. 

5. Imagination — the power of throwing expression 

and feeling into such objects. 

6. Divisions of poetry — hymns, ballads, epic poems, 

dramas, lyric, descriptive, &c. 

7. Explain the above forms of poetry. 

8. Conclusion. Poetry deserves to be cultivated; 

it refines, elevates, embellishes, &c. 

V. ON LANGUAGE. 

Introduction. Many significations of this word; 
always implies the power of conveying ideas to one 
another. 

1. Two great divisions of language — spoken and 
written. 



138 ENGLISH STYLE. 

2. The uses and advantages of each division. 

3. How writing is an improvement on speech. 

4. Every civilised nation has a literary language (bar- 

barous dialects not to be considered as languages). 

5. How a language improves. 

6. At one time, no written language in Europe but 

Latin. Why? 

7. Advantages derived from the study of various lan- 

guages ; their beauties and defects. 

8. Conclusion. Our own language of most impor- 

tance to us ; but others must be studied, if only 
to understand our own. 

VI. ON THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES. 

Introduction. Among the nations of antiquity, the 
Greeks and Romans the only civilised. 

1. Hence their language classical, because it pro- 

duced such great writers. 

2. Greek : plastic, strong, suited to all subjects ; deep 

and powerful, yet light and airy, graphic and 
lofty. 

3. Latin : beautifully adapted to history — dignified, 

powerful in satire, impressive. 

4. Difference in construction between ancient and 

modern languages (inflection). 

5. The inestimable advantages of a classical education. 

6. But no studies should be pursued exclusively. 

7. The works of the ancient classics among the most 

wonderful monuments of human genius. 

8. Conclusion. General advantages : always a source 

of delight ; never can be taken from us. 



SUBJECTS. 139 

VII. ON MODERN LANGUAGES. 

Introduction. Among the various branches of edu- 
cation, modern languages are prominent. 

1. Which are they ? English, French, German, Italian, 

Spanish. 

2. Various motives for studying these languages. 

3. Advantages derived from them : — merchants, tra- 

vellers, general students, &c. 

4. Opportunities afforded of judging of differences in 

national character by idioms, &c. 

5. Power of reading classical authors in the original 

— translations always more or less imperfect. 

6. Classification of modern languages into Romance 

and Teutonic. 

7. French, Italian, Spanish (founded on Latin) Ro- 

mance ; German, Dutch, English (Teutonic). 

8. Conclusion. Interest and numerous advantages 

resulting from this sort of study. 

VHI. ON VERSIFICATION. 

Introduction. Two grand divisions of language, 
prose and verse (explain the difference). 

1. Mention the essentials of verse. 

2. What is meant by accent ? 

3. Difference between ancient and modern systems of 

versification. 

4. Divisions of a verse : metre, feet, &c. 

5. Iambic, trocliaic, dactylic, anapaestic (explain). 

6. Mention in what forms of poetry the above metres 

are used. 



140 ENGLISH STYLE. 

7. Is verse a natural or an artificial form of language? 

8. Conclusion. What advantages has verse over 

prose? &c. 

IX. ON FABLES. 

Introduction. Many forms of teaching : by ques- 
tions, by precept, by example, &c. 

1. Many advantages in teaching by fables — a fable 

what? 

2. Who was the most celebrated fabulist among the 

ancients, and what imitators has he had in mo- 
dern times ? 

3. A fable originally spoken: how was the lesson 

imparted ? 

4. Show how fables contain both example and 

precept. 

5. The difference between a fable and a parable. 

6. The efficacy of fables as a means of moral instruc- 

tion. 

7. Pleasing to every age. 

8. Conclusion. Other forms of instruction are now 

adopted ; but none to be despised. The impor- 
tance of this subject proved by the many great 
writers who have treated of it. 



X. ON PRINTING. 

Introduction. Various appearances of language: 
spoken, written, printed. 

1. Printing, when invented ? — by whom ? — and by 

whom introduced into England ? 

2. An immense improvement upon writing : show 

how. 



SUBJECTS. 141 

3. What impulse did it give to the human intellect ? — 

how long it preceded the Reformation. 

4. How printing was connected with the revival of 

learning in Europe. 

5. Difficulties the early printers r had to contend against. 

6. How they were received in France by Louis XL 

7. The Aldi in Venice — Caxton in England, &c. 

8. Conclusion. The great perfection to which the art 

has now been raised — rapidity of execution — 
stereotype, &c. 

XI. ON NEWSPAPERS. 

Introduction. The natural desire of mankind to 
perpetuate their deeds to posterity. 

1. Various forms in which this desire has manifested 

itself — ballads, epics, chronicles, histories, &c. 

2. Newspapers among the latter — a current record 

of events. 

3. At first, merely a statement of facts — afterwards, 

remarks and comments on the conduct of public 
men and their measures. 

4. When newspapers were first established in England. 

5. The influence of the press, public opinion, &c. 

6. Redress of grievances, reform of abuses, &c. 

7. Freedom of the press, what ? — and how limited ? 

8. Conclusion. Reflections on this freedom — compari- 

son with continental nations in this respect, &c. 

XII. ON THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 

Introduction. The condition of Europe from the 
5th to the 15 th century. 

1. Compare this period with that of the condition of 
Europe from the 15th to the 19th century. 



142 ENGLISH STYLE. 

2. The taking of Constantinople by the Turks — 

when ? — its consequences. 

3. What Italian prince first encouraged learning ? 

4. Mention the names of some of the scholars of the 

15th and 16th centuries. 

5. What effect had this encouragement on the litera- 

ture of Europe ? 
6* Which was the first celebrated age of English 
literature ? 

7. Which country was now first celebrated for her 

learning ? 

8. Conclusion. Enthusiasm for learning — examples 

— universities, colleges, academies, schools, &c. 

PKACTICAL SUBJECTS. 

I. ON MONEY. 

Introduction. Ancient methods of carrying on trade 
— the great inconvenience of barter. 

1. The word " pecuniary," whence derived — the ob- 

ject of the invention of money. 

2. Early coins of the Greeks, Lydians, Persians, &c. 

3. Why the precious metals were chosen for coined 

money. 

4. Bank Notes — Bills of Exchange — Exchequer Bills, 

&c. 

5. How do these forms of money facilitate business ? 

6. What is meant by " investing " money ? 

7. The proper uses and the abuses of money. 

8. Conclusion. Reflections — an immoderate desire 

for wealth — squandering of riches — a proper 
medium — good to be done with money, &c. 



SUBJECTS. 143 



II. ON HANDWRITING. 



Introduction. Many popular errors — one, that the 
character may be guessed at from the handwriting. 

1. A good handwriting a desirable and useful accom- 

plishment. 

2. What is the most essential quality of a good hand? 

3. Formerly, the fashion was to write a bad hand; 

now, fortunately, this fashion is exploded. 

4. A great advantage to write legibly, and at the 

same time quickly. 

5. Ladies' handwriting, a commercial hand, a scholar's 

hand, &c. 

6. Handwriting may be remodelled at any time of 

life. 

7. Nationally, the English and Germans write clear 

and bold hands ; the French and Italians cramped 
and illegible. 

8. Conclusion. Cases in which a good handwriting 

is required — letters — copying — drawing up 
reports — authors' manuscripts, &c. 

III. ON READING ALOUD. 

Introduction. Many things of daily occurrence are 
really arts, though not generally considered such. 

1. Wherever we can lay down principles, and carry 

them into practice, there is an art. 

2. Reading may be reduced to principles, and every 

one may improve by careful practice. 

3. Articulation. What, and whence derived ; a dis- 

tinct utterance of every syllable. 

4. Pronunciation. The right accent and tone to 



144 ENGLISH STYLE. 

every word (give examples of wrong pronun- 
ciation). 

5. Inflection. The raising and falling of the voice 

on certain words in a sentence (to prevent 
monotony). 

6. Pauses. Stopping in certain places to give effect 

to the meaning. 

7. Tone. The voice adapted to the sense of every 

passage. 

8. Pitch of the voice — depends on circumstances — 

high in a large room, lower in a smaller. 

9. Anticipation. The power of reading before we 

utter, to prevent wrong emphasis or inflection. 
10. Conclusion. All these rules to be supported by 
practice — a very rare, though very desirable, ac- 
complishment — cases where reading is required. 

IY. ON EXERCISE. 

Introduction. Certain principles observable through 
the whole range of nature : these always worthy of 
imitation. 

1. Exercise one of these principles; applicable to 

mind as well as to body. 

2. Explain this analogy. 

3. Excess, in either case, defeats the purpose, and 

therefore injurious. 

4. Things not used grow rusty, and out of good 

condition. 

5. In the physical world, nature always in exercise 

— wind, water, &c. 

6. All the faculties should be exercised — none 

neglected. 



SUBJECTS. 145 

7. Judgment and discretion applied in particular 

cases. 

8. Conclusion. Exercise : periodical, equal ; both body 

and mind thus kept in health. 

V. ON COSTUME. 

Introduction. The infinite variety of nature : art 
an imitator. 

1. Much taste may be displayed in dress. 

2. Greek and Roman costume. 

3. Eastern modes of dress. 

4. Modern costumes: Spanish, Highland Scotch, &c. 

5. The picturesque and the graceful. 

6. Costume regulated partly by climate, fashion, &c. 

7. Colours should be well assorted — no glaring con- 

trasts. 

8. Conclusion. A certain attention to dress proper : 

it should not engross too much of our time. 

VI. ON READING FOR IMPROVEMENT. 

Introduction. System and method required in all 
our pursuits. 

1. One very fertile source of knowledge — reading. 

2. Conversation desultory, imperfect ; a book arranged, 

systematic. 

3. We can reflect on passages read in a book. 

4. The mind should be concentrated on what we are 

^reading. 

5. Read regularly, but not too long at a time : vary 

your studies. 

L 



146 ENGLISH STYLE. 

6. In studying a subject, begin with a simple trea- 

tise, never with a voluminous work. 

7. Keep a note-book ; make references to striking 

passages, but do not make long extracts. 

8. Conclusion. Consult others as to what books are 

to be read ; avoid everything coarse, sentimental, 
or controversial. 



VII. ON COMMERCE. 

Introduction. The many and various ways by 
which a nation's welfare is provided for : a strong reli- 
gious feeling, a high tone of morality, a generally 
diffused education, &c. 

1. Commerce among these blessings ; its effects. 

2. An ancient practice. Who were the most com- 

mercial people among the ancients ? 

3. In modern times : Venetians, Genoese, Portu- 

guese, Dutch, English, and Americans. 

4. Mention some of the commodities of the northern 

and of the southern nations. 

5. What advantages are mutually derived from this 

intercourse ? 

6. Mention the articles of commerce drawn from 

America, Australia, and India. 

7. How does commerce tend to civilise mankind, and 

make the probabilities of war less frequent ? 

8. Show the state of those countries that refuse to 

establish a commercial intercourse with other 
nations, — China, Japan, &c., — and draw a* con- 
clusion. 



SUBJECTS. 147 



VIII. ON TRAVELLING. 

Introduction. The superiority of the sight over 
the other senses. What we see makes a deeper im- 
pression than what we hear or read of. 

1. Hence the utility of travelling. 

2. But the profit depends 4>n the spirit in which 

we travel. 

3. Various purposes of travel : all may be combined 

with instruction. 

4. The world greatly indebted to travellers. How ? 

5. Sir John Mandeville, Marco Polo, Captain Cook, 

Bruce, Franklin, Parry, &c. 

6. Novelty the cause of the pleasure derived from 

travelling. 

7. Much to be seen in England itself, as well as on 

the Continent. 

8. Reading, conversation, observation, and travelling, 

the principal sources of knowledge. 



IX. ON AGRICULTURE. 

Introduction. Difference between natural and arti- 
ficial occupations. 

1. Agriculture the primitive occupation of our first 

parents. 

2. Cultivation of corn, vegetables, fruits, flowers, &c» 

3. Variety of soils, drainage, rotation of crops, &c. 

4. The application of chemistry to agriculture. 

5. Agriculture a universal practice in all civilly \ 

countries. 

6. Reclaiming of tracts of land from the sea, &e. 

l 2 



148 ENGLISH STYLE. 

7. Systems of farming ; improvement of the land, &c. 

8. Precariousness of this occupation ; the profits of 

farming. Concluding remarks. 

X. ON GOOD HUMOUE. 

Introduction. The variety of dispositions : the grave, 
the gay, the serious, the witty, &c. 

1. Difference between humour and temper; John- 

son's definition of good humour. 

2. Is this state of mind natural or acquired ? and, if 

acquired, how? 

3. Arguments in favour of good humour. What are 

its effects on ourselves and others ? 

4. Good humour no proof of silliness ; perfectly com- 

patible with good sense. 

5. Is it possible for the morose and gloomy to become 

good-humoured ? 

6. By what means could this change be effected ? 

7. The example shown by the good-humoured. 

8. Conclusion. A quality so frequently required — 

attainable by all — the advantages of acquiring 
this habit, &c. 

XI. ON MANNEES. 

Introduction. First impressions are lasting : most 
people judge by external appearance. 

1. Various forms of manner : stiff, formal, cold, po- 

lite, reserved, timid, gentle, self-possessed, &c. 

2. True politeness founded on a benevolent feeling. 

3. The manners should be a true index to the cha- 

racter - y otherwise hypocritical. 



SUBJECTS. 149 

4. Without a proper foundation, polished manners 

are worthless. 

5. Grace in action and words, as well as in feeling. 

6. A mistaken notion that rough manners prove 

honesty of character. 

7. Learning, or knowledge, does not, of necessity, 

give us good manners. 

8. Conclusion, Good manners command esteem, 

affection, and bring many other advantages. 



XII. ON GOVERNMENT. 

Introduction. The wide acceptation of many words, 
and the necessity to understand all their meanings. 

1. Government of self — family — patriarchal — poli- 

tical, &c. 

2. The necessity for this principle ; consequences if 

suddenly changed or abolished. 

3. How to govern ourselves : vigilance, meditation, 

self-examination ; a sense of our weakness, and 
dependence on a Supreme Being, &c. 

4. Justice required in governing others ; no undue 

preference or dislike, or .... (?) 

5. Various forms of political government : the welfare 

of a people mainly depends on the government ; 
responsibility of the rulers. 

6. The Monarchical and the Republican forms. 

7. What arguments may be adduced in favour of, or 

against, each ? 

8. The English form of government — its advantages ; 

would it equally well suit other nations ? 
l 3 



150 



ENGLISH STYLE. 



Conclusion. General reflections : the infirmities 
of nature—- evil inclinations must be curbed — 
security of life and property maintained, &c. 

List of general Subjects for Composition. 



6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 

15. 
16. 

17. 

18. 



On the order of litera- 
ture. 

On the commercial spirit 
of the English. 

On architecture. 

On the characteristics of 
great musical composers. 

On rules, laws, and prin- 
ciples. 

On the drama. 

On the history of the 16th 
century. 

On rhetoric. 

On English history 

On superstition. 

On vulgar errors. 

On economy. 

On ceremonies. 

On the influence of popular 
writers. 

On colonization. 

On the education of the 
poor. 

On the character of the 
ancient Greeks. 

On independence of 
thought. 



19. On the physical philosophy 

of the middle ages. 

20. On variety. 

21. On our duties towards 

animals. 

22. On English poetry. 

23. On liberty. 

24. On slavery. 

25. On the British essayists. 

26. On evidence ; positive and 

circumstantial. 

27. On advice. 

28. On satire. 

29. On the causes and con- 

sequences of war. 

30. On the Crusades. 

31. On the passion of fear. 

32. On the feudal system. 

33. On chivalry. 

34. On the communes of France. 

35. On the Reformation. 
3 6. On treaties of peace. 

37. On the causes of war. 

38. On patriotism. 

39. On experience. 

40. On the study of Natural 

History. 



ON DOUBLE SUBJECTS. 

Another form of writing which may be proposed as 
a useful exercise for the reasoning power, is when a 
question is put in such a form as to admit of two 
answers. On many subjects there may be a variety 
of opinions, some directly opposed to others. People 
may, and very often do, admit the truth of a general 



SUBJECTS. 151 

proposition, but differ as to particulars. Most people, 
now-a-days, agree in the opinion that education is de- 
sirable ; but there is a very wide difference of opinion 
as to how the process of education should be conducted. 
We would all arrive at the same goal, but would not 
travel thither by the same path. Again, of two promi- 
nent historical characters, our sympathies may lead us 
to prefer one to the other, though we admire both. Or, 
it might be a question whether the object of our penal 
law should be to reform the criminal, or to secure the 
lives and property of the community, &c. In all these 
and such cases there are two sides to the question, and 
it w r ill be for the writer to collect all the arguments on 
one side, and then on the other, to weigh them against 
each other, and thus form his opinion. The following 
piece of writing will illustrate this form of composition. 

SUBJECT. 

Which was the greater character, Alexander the 
Great or Julius Caesar ? 

Before we can answer this question, there is much 
to be considered : the different condition of the world 
at the periods in which these great men respectively 
lived, the circumstances under which they both rose to 
eminence, the peculiar advantages and disadvantages 
attached to their respective lives, &c, must all have 
their weight in assisting us to arrive at any definitive 
conclusion on this question. 

Alexander was left, unexpectedly, heir to the Mace- 
donian kingdom at an early age, surrounded by poli- 
tical and personal difficulties. But notwithstanding 
his youth and inexperience, these obstacles were at 

l 4 



152 ENGLISH STYLE. 

once removed by the fertility of his genius and the 
firmness of his will ; and he was soon in a condition 
to undertake that expedition which had so long been 
the ardent desire of the Greek States — an expedition 
which was to carry war into the country of their 
ancient enemies — avenge the heroes of Thermopylae, 
and the insults offered to the sacred city of Minerva. 
Victory followed his standard at a pace proportioned 
to the advance of his soldiers, and the Persian 
Empire soon lay prostrate at the feet of the youthful 
conqueror. Would that we could here close the bril- 
liant scene, and draw a veil over the future career 
of the hero. But the truth must be spoken; and 
historical justice demands that his vices and crimes 
should be placed on record. 

In the madness of his pride, he now exacted from 
his subjects the adoration paid to a god ; and the rest 
of his life was but a tissue of vice and crime. In a fit 
of violent passion, he murdered his oldest and best 
friend; and, probably seeking to drown his remorse 
in the pleasures of the table, he at length fell a victim 
to his excesses, in the twelfth year of his reign. 

Alexander had many advantages; he studied under 
Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of Greece ; 
he had an ardent love of literature, especially the 
poetry of Homer. He was of a most generous dispo- 
sition, as evidenced by his behaviour to the wife and 
mother of Darius, and to his physician Philip. He 
possessed a large and comprehensive intellect, of 
which we may form a more distinct notion when we 
contemplate the gigantic projects he left unfinished. 

On the other hand, Csesar had to contend against 
many disadvantages. He won his way to distinction 



SUBJECTS. 153 

by his abilities. He carved out his fortune with 
his sword. He was opposed to fierce and powerful 
barbarians, formidable both for their numbers and 
their ferocity ; but he overcame all these difficulties, 
and added at least one province to the Roman Empire. 
During the civil wars, he displayed as much skill and 
sagacity as he had shown in his government of Gaul, 
and here also he was invariably successful. Nor was 
he wanting in those high personal qualities which are 
naturally looked for in a soldier. On several occasions 
he displayed an intrepid courage, and a cool resolution 
worthy of the highest admiration. 

In comparing the characters of these two great men, 
we cannot fail to be struck with the many points in 
which they resemble each other. Ambition was the 
ruling passion of both ; and if there is merit in con- 
quering, both are entitled to the highest praise. But 
there is here a difference. Alexander attacked an 
effeminate people, disorganised and enfeebled by 
luxury. Of these he made an easy conquest. With 
Caesar the case was different ; he was always opposed 
to a brave and energetic enemy — sometimes to his 
own countrymen — yet he w r as always successful. He 
had that confidence in himself which is an inva- 
riable sign of genius ; and his reproach to the nervous 
pilot, " Ccesarem velds I " is the key to his uniform 
success. 

But Caesar was not only a great general, he has 
claims to our notice on other grounds. He was an 
accomplished man of science and letters. His " Com- 
mentaries " are still read with delight, and are con- 
sidered a model of pure style. His oratory was copious 
and flowing, and his knowledge of astronomy led to 



154 ENGLISH STYLE. 

that improvement of the calendar which has continued 
to the present day. 

Though far from perfect, Cassar is not open to the 
charge of immorality which can be brought against 
Alexander. They were both generous ; but Cassar 
had a greater command over his passions. The 
Eoman general was singularly merciful and kind ; and 
his first care, after conquering his enemies, was to 
make them his friends by the gentleness and con- 
sideration with which he treated them. The deaths of 
these great men were strikingly different ; and how- 
ever we may regret the fate of Caesar, it was far more 
favourable to his future reputation than if he had 
" lived the lease of time," and died the death of ordi- 
nary men. But the circumstances of the Macedonian 
king's death seemed to expunge all his virtues ; they 
present us with the degrading picture of one who, 
having overcome all external opposition, failed to 
conquer his own passions, and left to future genera- 
tions a lasting example of weakness and intemperance. 

The following list of double subjects will furnish 
exercises in this form of writing : — 

DOUBLE SUBJECTS. 

1. Which is the better form of government, a 

monarchy or a republic ? 

2. Which has the more powerful effect in forming 

national character, climate or habits ? 

3. A comparison between the characters of Thomas 

a Becket and Cardinal Wolsey. 

4. On the comparative merits of the English and 

German languages. 



SUBJECTS. 155 

5. From which vice does society most suffer, luxury 

or avarice ? t 

6. Which has been of the most service to mankind, 

printing or steam ? 

7. A comparison between the writings of Shakspere 

and Milton. 

8. On the comparative characters of the ancient 

Greeks and Romans. 

9. Which faculty is of the greater importance to 

cultivate, the reason or the imagination ? 

10. A comparison between the characters of Charles 

V. and Philip II. 

11. A comparison between the characters of Oliver 

Cromwell and Napoleon Bonaparte. 

12. On the different effects produced by the study of 

art and of science. 

13. A comparison between the characters of Isabella 

of Spain and Elizabeth of England. 

14. Which is the more agreeable study, poetry or 

rhetoric ? 

15. On the comparative merits of Homer and Virgil. 

16. On the poetry of Dryden and Pope. 

17. On the difference between fancy and imagination. 

18. Which is the more useful profession, the church 

or the law ? 

19. Which is of the greater importance as a study, 

art or science ? 
20* Which produces the more important effects, the 
encouragement of agriculture or of manufac- 
tures ? 



156 



PART V. 

ON STYLE. 



ON STYLE. 

If, as is universally admitted, no two persons are 
exactly alike in outward appearance, it is unreasonable 
to expect that any two minds should be so similar as 
to be undistinguishable from each other. Hence it 
follows that expression of thought must vary with 
varieties of mind, and, therefore, that every writer 
must have his own manner of expression. 

The word " style " is derived from the Latin stylus, 
an instrument used by the ancient Romans for the 
purpose of writing. By a figure of speech, the name 
at first given to the pen was transferred to the peculiar 
mode of the writer, and the w T ord is now generally 
used in the latter sense. The natural style of a writer 
is always closely connected with his manner of think- 
ing, and hence, no better criterion of his intellect can 
be found than his written expression. Now, as styles 
differ with the nature of different minds, we must 
expect to meet with a great variety. Some are stiff, 
formal, and harsh; others powerful, pleasing, neat, 
harmonious, &c. But, as every power is capable of 



PERSPICUITY. 157 

cultivation, it is quite possible to improve in this par- 
ticular, so as to change a formal and pompous into an 
easy, flowing style ; and it is obvious that in effecting 
this change, not only the outward expression, but the 
mind itself, whence the expression flows, will be ma- 
terially improved by the operation. 

In cultivating style, we should never lose sight of 
the great aim and purpose of all writing, — to make 
ourselves understood. To this end everything must 
be sacrificed ; and the least reflection will convince 
us that whatever graces or beauties we may imagine 
our compositions to possess, they must be useless if 
the writing itself is unintelligible. Clearness of ex- 
pression is, then, the grand point ; and when this clear- 
ness is once acquired, it will be time enough to think 
of embellishment. First must come the useful, then 
the ornamental, — first the sense, then the sound, — 
and therefore it is to this indispensable quality, Per- 
spicuity, we must, before all things, endeavour to 
attain. 

The first essential to the attainment of a clear style 
is, that we have a definite understanding of our own 
meaning before we attempt to express it in written 
words : the thought should be well defined in the head 
before it is put on paper. But thought is of so subtile 
a nature, and our conceptions are sometimes so indis- 
tinct, that it may be frequently no easy matter to 
follow this rule. It is therefore recommended that 
the learner, though properly anxious, be not over 
solicitous on this subject. To write down something 
is better than to wait too long for the clear under- 
standing of the thought. When the expression is on 
the paper, it may then be corrected, or improved, and 



158 ENGLISH STYLE. 

thus brought into the form of the writer's original 
intention. With practice will come facility, and the 
practice, if careful and continual, is the very best dis- 
cipline for the mind. For be it observed, that the 
etfect of this practice is to give clearness to the 
thought, and thereby directly to strengthen and ex- 
pand the intellect, — an advantage which every sensible 
person will surely admit to be well worth the trouble 
of gaining. 

This being premised, we have now to consider the 
qualities necessary to perspicuity of style. These are 
1. Purity ; 2. Propriety ; and 3. Precision. 

PURITY. 

Language, to be pure, must be free, 1st, from all 
foreign words ; 2nd, from antiquated terms ; 3rd, 
from new-coined words not in good use ; 4th, from 
grammatical errors ; and 5th, from foreign idioms. 

FOREIGN WORDS. 

1. An example of the ridiculous jargon caused by 
an affectation of foreign terms, may be seen in the 
following extract from one of Lady Morgan's contri- 
butions to the " New Monthly Magazine " : — 

" I was chez moi, inhaling the odeur musquee of my 
scented boudoir, when the Prince de Z. entered. He 
found me in my demi- toilette, blasee sur tout, and 
pensively engaged in solitary conjugation of the verb 
s'ennuyer ; and though he had never been one of my 
habitues, or by any means des notres, I was not dis- 
inclined, at this moment of delassement, to glide with 
him into the crocchio ristretto of familiar chat." 



OBSOLETE WORDS. 159 

This absurd affectation will only excite ridicule in 
those who understand these foreign terms, and disgust 
in those who do not. 

There is a limit, however, in this as in all things. 
Many very good English words have been imported 
from France, some even of a comparatively recent 
date, which we should be hardly justified in rejecting ; 
such as ennui, espionnage, surveillance, bonhomie, 
naivete, &c. The only grounds on which we admit 
such innovations are, that we have no English words 
to express exactly the ideas which these words con- 
vey. Indeed, such words succeed in holding a place 
in our language only when they are really necessary ; 
otherwise they maintain but an ephemeral existence, 
and quickly become obsolete. 



OBSOLETE WORDS. 

2. Another important point connected with this 
subject is the revival of antiquated words. However 
great may be the admiration we entertain for the times 
of classical antiquity, or of mediaeval manners, &c, we 
must take care not to let this feeling affect our lan- 
guage. Obsolete words should not be again brought 
into use, for the simple reason that they are no longer 
wanted ; and though such words would, no doubt, be 
understood by scholars or antiquaries, they would 
convey no definite sense to the generality of readers. 
No one would now think of using the terms kerns and 
galloiv-glasses for light and heavy-armed infantry, 
nor would any one employ anon for ' immediately,' or 
dowle for ' feather,' or hjbe for c chilblain,' &c; for 



160 ENGLISH STYLE. 

though these words may have been in common use 
early in the 17th century, they have now become 
quite obsolete, and are totally unintelligible to the 
great majority of readers. The same may be said of 
' cleped/ ' erst/ ' whilom/ * peradventure/ &c. 

There are other English words which seem to be in 
a state of transition; fading away, or gradually vanish- 
ing from the language ; among them may be mentioned 
' betwixt/ ' froward/ ' likewise/ ' hither/ ' genteel/ 
' hearken/ &c. Of such it may be difficult to deter- 
mine whether they should or should not be retained. 
Though it cannot be said that they are wholly out of 
fashion, they are seldom used by the best writers, 
and we should, at any rate, avoid a too frequent 
repetition of them. 

NEW WORDS. 

3. With regard to the adoption of new-coined words, 
those only must be received for which we have good 
authority, and even these not too rashly. A word 
that is found necessary, is fairly tried, and has 
stood the test of some years, may be cautiously 
received and adopted as forming part of the du- 
rable materials of the language. The application of 
steam-power to locomotion has given us some new 
words, such as ' terminus/ ' shunt/ ' point/ ' break/ 
' stoker/ &c. From Germany we have lately adopted 
* handbook,' ' Fatherland/ &c. ; and the word 'ante- 
cedents/ in a plural form, has lately been applied to 
the previous life and actions of one whose character 
we desire to inquire into. But, with respect both to 



GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 161 

obsolete and to new-coined words, Pope's advice seems 
the best that we can follow : — 

" In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ; 
Alike fantastic, if too new or old. 
Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." 



GEAMMATICAL ERRORS. 

4. Grammatical errors are common to almost all 
our early great authors ; indeed, it is not till the com- 
mencement of the 17th century, that we meet with 
any English writers of eminence that are invariably 
correct in their grammar. Hobbes, who began his 
career of authorship about 1628, is quoted by Hallam 
as our first uniformly careful and correct writer ; 
but even he is far from faultless in this particular. 
In fact, the principles of English grammar were 
scarcely settled before this time, and then, in many 
points of grammatical form, a great variety of practice 
prevailed. Now, however, the case is different ; the 
authority of our best writers is the grammatical law 
of the language ; though it is a law far from being 
invariably maintained, even by many authors of ac- 
knowledged merit. We propose to show in what 
particulars this law has been, and still is, frequently 
violated. 

ERRORS IN PRONOUNS. 

The construction of a sentence will frequently re- 
quire the subjective, where writers use the objective 
form of the personal pronoun. In the following sen- 
tences, the pronoun is incorrectly used : — 

M 



162 ENGLISH STYLE. 

Personal Pronouns. 

" They contributed more than us" " He was much 
older than her" "A prophet mightier than him." 
" I may preach as lawfully as them that do." In all 
these cases there is an ellipsis of the verb ; and, by 
supplying the verb after the pronoun, the fault will be 
obvious. "More than us (contributed?)." "Older 
than her (was ?)," &c. 

In the subjoined cases, the fault is the converse of 
the above, L e., the subjective is used for the objective 
form of the personal pronoun : — 

" Let you and /endeavour," &c. " Between you and 
I" " All slept save she" " There's none but thou" 
" She is sold like thou" &c. We sometimes meet 
with ye (the subjective plural form) instead of you, as 
in the following : " The more shame for ye." " The 
gales that from ye blow." " Tyrants dread ye" &c. 
This is a frequent practice, but it is unquestionably 
against the rule of grammar. 

The Relative Pronoun. 

The same sort of error may be frequently found in 
the wrong use of the relative ; as : " He whom ye 
pretend reigns in heaven." "Whom do men say that 
I am ? " " Who should I meet the other day but," &c. 
" To lay the suspicion on somebody, I know not who." 

In the first of these examples, it should be who (not 
whom), as the relative is here the subject to the verb 
' reigns.' In the second, the relative depends on the 
verb ' am,' which governs the subjective and not the 
objective form. In the third, the construction requires 
whom, as the relative is here the object of the verb 
' meet.' 



GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 163 

In the fourth, the preposition 'on' is understood 
before the relative, and therefore the pronoun should 
be in the objective, not in the subjective, form. 

Inconsistencies in the Use of Pronouns. 

We should be uniform in the use of pronouns : 
the same individual must not be referred to in one 
sentence by both the singular and plural forms, nor 
must the person of the pronoun be changed. The pos- 
sessive, also, must always correspond with the per- 
sonal pronoun to which it refers. The following are 
violations of these rules : — 

" Ungrateful boy! I cannot cease to love thee ; for 
I am still your father." " The wicked are suffered to 
flourish till the sum of his iniquities is full." " You 
detest me, thy creature, to whom thou art bound by 
ties," &c. " In such a dilemma, one can hardly tell 
what plan we should adopt," &c. " Following our 
guides, we descend about fifty steps, and then you 
arrive at the entrance of the grand cavern." " Who 
ever thinks of learning the grammar of their own 
tongue ? " " Every man according to their works." 
" Each of them paid their portion." 

Another and the other. 

Another signifies any other ; the other signifies one 
of two. These two pronouns differ from each other ; 
but they are frequently confounded. Of a number of 
things, when I have examined one, I may ask to see 
ayiother {i. e. any other), but of a work in two 
volumes, when I have read one, I may desire to read 
the other volume (i. e., the one I have not yet read). 
Each other is said of two things ; one another of 

31 2 



264 ENGLISH STYLE, 

more than two. In the following examples, these pro- 
nouns are used incorrectly : — 

"The house was full from one end to another? 
" Let them strike till you cannot tell one foot from 
another? " Prose and poetry are different one from 
another? " One end of the reed being as thick as 
another? 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF VERBS. 

Numerous errors in the use of the verb are com- 
mitted by our best authors, especially where the sub- 
ject is a noun of multitude. When a noun of multitude 
is used in a general or a distributive sense, the verb 
must agree with it in the plural number ; as, " The 
clergy are opposed to this measure." But if the sense 
be collective, then the verb should be of the singular 
number ; as, " The number of the children was 
fifteen." 

The following quotations exhibit violations of this 
rule : " The number of the names were about one 
hundred and twenty." " The population is tall." 
" There are a variety of things." " I have considered 
what have been said." " That people rejects the use of 
temples." 

Two nouns closely connected, or coexistent, must 
have a singular verb ; as> " Bread and butter is good." 
" The horse and chaise is at the door." " The brandy 
and water was ready." " Early to bed, and early to 
rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise," &c. 

In the following examples > the verb does not agree 
with its subject : — 

" There was more sophists than one." " You was 



GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 165 

acquainted." " You was here." te Whence did thou 
come up ? " " Thou confined? " The temper as well 
as knowledge of a modern historian require" &c. 
" Magnus, with four thousand of his accomplices, were 
put to death." " Oleander, with six hundred soldiers, 
tvere executed," &c. 

When several singular subjects are connected by a 
disjunctive conjunction, the verb must be singular, 
and not as in the following examples : " He knows 
not what spleen, languor, or listlessness are? " Neither 
death nor torture were sufficient," &c. " Neither 
Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such 
a system." 

Each, either, neither, and every, when followed by 
'of with its governed words, must have the verb in 
the singular number, and not as in these examples : 
" Each of these words imply? " Neither of them are 
remarkable." " Every circumstance which enable 
them." " Every one of the letters bear date after his 
banishment." " In proportion as either of these two 
qualities are wanting," &c. 

ERRORS IN THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

The subjunctive, not the indicative, mood should be 
used after a conjunction when there is question of 
future contingency or supposition. . In the following 
quotations, this rule is neglected : — 

" If the most active of mankind was able, at the 
close of his life," &c. " If a man tvas to compare the 
effect of a single stroke of the pickaxe with the general 
design and last result, he would be overwhelmed," &c. 
"If any member absents himself, he shall forfeit a 
m 3 



166 ENGLISH STYLE. 

penny for the use of the club." " To bless the name 
of the Lord, whether He gives or takes away," &c. 

The indicative, not the subjunctive, mood should be 
used after a conjunction when an ascertained fact is 
referred to as either past or present ; and a proposition 
enouncing a universal truth must always be in the. 
present indicative. In the following sentences, these 
rules are infringed : — 

" But if it be true, which was said by a French 
prince, that no man was a hero to the servants of his 
chamber, it is equally true that every man is less a 
hero to himself." " Two young men have made a dis- 
covery that there was a God." " If similitude of 
manners be a motive to kindness, the idler may flatter 
himself with universal patronage." "No one can 
thoroughly understand the Scriptures of the New 
Testament, unless he be well acquainted with those of 
the Old." 

ERRORS IN THE SEQUENCE OF MOODS AND TENSES. 

When two propositions are coupled by a conjunc- 
tion, the verbs in each proposition must correspond 
with each other in mood and tense. This rule is 
infringed in the examples below : — 

" If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and remember - 
est" &c. " Ye will not come to me that ye might have 
life." « Then shalt thou prosper, if thou takest heed 
to fulfil the statutes," &c. " Whether our conduct be 
inspected, and we are under a righteous government," 
&c. " Let us consider how many things we formerly 
knew, but now have either wholly forgotten, or but 
very imperfectly remembered" &c. " These contacts 



GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 167 

would rather occasion silence than to produce a 
voice/' &c. 

A participle should not be joined with a verb, as in 
the following passage : — 

" Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an 
uneasy sensation, and brings with it a mixture of con- 
cern and compassion." 

An ellipsis of part of a compound tense should be 
avoided. The following sentences are exceptionable 
in this respect : — 

" I am, and always have, taken great pains," &c. 
u You never have, and never will see, such a sight 
again." " This dedication may serve for almost any 
book that has, is, or shall be published." " I shall do 
all I can to persuade others to take the same measures 
for their cure which I have," 

ERRORS IN THE USE OF PARTICIPLES. 

The past tense indicative is frequently used incor- 
rectly for the participle ; as : — 

" I had no sooner drank, but," &c. " I do not find 
that any science has throve among us," &c. " Had he 
wrote English poetry," &c. " The seeds of future 
divisions were sowed" " The court of Augustus had 
not ivore off the manners of the republic." " A con- 
stitution, when it has been shook by the iniquity," &c. 
" Some philosophers have mistook" " The greater 
regard was showed" " The fountains of the earth 
were broke open or clove asunder." " This nimble 
operator will have stole it." " If a new species of 
controversial books had not arose," &c. 

jyi 4 



168 ENGLISH STYLE. 

ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 

Some adjectives which bear in themselves a com- 
parative or a superlative meaning, do not admit of 
degrees of comparison. In the following extracts, 
the form of the adjective is incorrect : — 

" The last are, indeed, more 'preferable, because they 
are founded," &c. " The two chief est properties of 
air." " The extremest parts of the earth were medi- 
tating a submission." " Money, in a word, is the most 
universal incitement of human misery." 

Double comparatives and superlatives are no longer 
admissible; such as, " Which title had been more 
truer" &c. " The waters are more sooner frozen than 
more further upwards," &c. " I wish your grandam 
had a worser march." " This was the most unkindest 
cut of all." 

When two objects are compared together, the com- 
parative, not the superlative, degree of the adjective 
should be used. In the following sentences, this rule 
is infringed : — 

"This was, in reality, the easiest manner of the 
two." " The question is not whether a good Indian 
or bad (a bad) Englishman be most happy ; but which 
state is most desirable, supposing virtue and reason to 
be the same in both." 

Adjectives are sometimes incorrectly used as ad- 
verbs ; as : — 

" I shall endeavour to live suitable to a man in my 
station." " He behaved himself conformable to that 
blessed example." " His expectations run high, and 
the fund to supply them is extreme scanty." "I 
never could think so very mean of him." " There is 



GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 169 

scarce a man living," &c. "Exceeding fair." " Ex- 
ceeding popular." " Extreme good bargains." (i His 
speech was all excellent good in itself," &C 1 

INACCURACIES IN THE USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND 
SUPERLATIVE. 

" This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted 
fewer corruptions " (than any other). " The vice of 
covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of 
any other " (deeper than any other). " We have a 
profession set apart for the purposes of persuasion, 
wherein a talent of this kind would prove the likeliest, 
perhaps, of any other " (likelier than any other). 
" As old, or even older than tradition " (as old as). 
" The event, of all others, which the Orleans party 
most ardently wished to avoid " (more ardently than 
any other). 

ERRORS IN THE USE OF NEGATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE 
PARTICLES. 

' Neither ' should be followed by < nor,' and not 
as in the following extracts : — 

"That neither partiality or prejudice appear." 
" These can point out the straight way upon the road, 
but can neither tell you the next turning, or answer 
your questions." " He was charged as neither faith- 
ful or exact." " I demand neither place, pension, ex- 
clusive privilege, or any other reward whatever." 

1 Some adjectives are correctly used as adverbs ; as : " The 
door was fast locked;" "Do not speak too loud;" "I long 
loved your daughter," &c. 



170 ENGLISH STYLE. 

" Neither by them or me would it be regarded as an 
objection." 

In English, two negatives make an affirmative ; 
and, therefore, if we wish to deny, only one negative 
should be used. In the following examples, this 
principle is transgressed : — 

" We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of 
God " (nor do we). " In the growth and stature of 
souls, as well as bodies, the common productions are 
of different sizes, that occasion no gazing, nor no 
wonder " (nor any). " I'll prove that you are no 
composer, nor know no more of music than you do of 
algebra " (and know). " Nor is danger ever appre- 
hended in such a government from the violence of 
the sovereign, no more than we commonly apprehend 
danger from thunder or earthquakes " (take out no)* 



FOREIGN IDIOMS. 

5. An idiom is an expression peculiar to some one 
language, and which, if translated literally into any 
other, will be pronounced incorrect. Thus, if any 
one were to translate into English the German ex- 
pression, "Wo sind Sie gewesen ?" by "Where are 
they been ? " or the French, " Je viens de voir mon 
pere," by " I come from to see my father," every one 
would condemn these forms as bad English. Both 
these sentences have corresponding equivalents in 
English ; but they are not translateable word for 
word, and therefore they are idioms. 

The style of a writer, as regards idiom, is very 
likely to be affected by the direction of his studies. 



FOREIGN IDIOMS. 171 

Many, not unnaturally, imbibe so strong a love for 
classical scholarship, or for the modern European 
languages, that they sometimes unconsciously intro- 
duce into their English compositions forms of ex- 
pression which properly belong to Greek, Latin, 
French, or German. From this cause, some of our 
most learned authors are among the least idiomatic 
of English writers. In all cases this is a great error, 
because it is un-English, and distorts the proper 
character of our language ; but it is not unfrequently 
an absurd affectation, a mere ostentatious display of 
learning. The following are a few of the many errors 
of this kind that are profusely scattered over the 
English writings of the last and the present century : — 

" The king soon found reason to repent him of his 
provoking such dangerous enemies." " The popular 
lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." 
" Removing the term from Westminster, sitting the 
parliament, was illegal." " Solomon was of this mind ; 
and I make no doubt but he made as wise and true 
proverbs as anybody has done since, — Him only ex- 
cepted, who was a much greater and wiser man 
than Solomon." " Lewis the Fourteenth had reason 
when he said, ' The Pyrenees are removed.' " 

This affectation of adopting French idioms is cle- 
verly ridiculed in Hannah More's " Satirical Letter 
from a Lady to her Friend, in the Reign of George 
the Fifth " :— 

" Alamode Castle. 
" Dear Madam, 

" I no sooner found myself here, than I vi- 
sited my new apartments, which are composed of 
five pieces. The small room, which gives upon the 



172 ENGLISH STYLE. 

garden, is practised through the great one, and there 
is no other issue. As I was exceeded with fatigue, I 
no sooner made my toilette, than I let myself fall upon 
a bed of repose, where sleep came to surprise me. 
My lord and I are in the intention to make good 
cheer, and a great expense, and this country is in 
possession to furnish wherewithal to amuse oneself. 
All that England has of illustrious, all that youth 
has of amiable, or beauty of ravishing, sees itself in 
this quarter. Render yourself here, then, my friend, 
and you shall find assembled all that is best, whether 
for letters, whether for mirth," &c, &c. 

Many mistakes in idiom are made by the applica- 
tion of wrong prepositions. 

" The only actions to which we have always seen, 
and still see, all of them intent, are such as tend to the 
destruction of one another." " To which, as Bishop 
Burnet tells us, the Prince of Orange was willing to 
comply." " He had been perplexed with a long 
compliance to foreign manners." " Your character, 
which I, or any other writer, may now value our- 
selves (?) by drawing, will probably be dropped," &c. 
6i The discovery he made and communicated with his 
friends." " Not from any personal hatred to them, 
but in justification to the best of queens." "The 
wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their 
greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely 
upon counsel." " A supercilious attention to minute 
personalities is a certain indication to the want of 
innate dignity." " He found the greatest difficulty of 
writing." " The esteem which Philip had conceived 
of the ambassador." " The greatest difficulty was 



FOREIGN IDIOMS. 173 

found of fixing just sentiments." "The Christians 
were driven out of all their possessions, in acquiring 
of which, incredible numbers of men had perished." 
" You know the esteem I have of his philosophy." 
" He is so resolved of going to the Persian court." 
" Neither he nor the other shall make me swerve out 
of the path which I have traced to myself." "I do 
likewise dissent with the 6 Examiner.'" " Dr. Johnson , 
with whom I am sorry to differ in opinion, has treated 
it as a work of merit.'' " Ovid, whom ye accuse for 
luxuriancy of verse." " This effect, we may safely 
say, no one beforehand could have promised upon? 
"A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, 
without making any sensible alteration upon it." 
" Every office of command should be entrusted to 
persons on whom the parliament shall confide." 
"All of which required abundance of finesse and 
delicatesse to manage with advantage, as well as a 
strict observance after times and fashions." " The 
Italian universities were forced to send for their 
professors from Spain and France." " Napoleon 
sought to ally himself in marriage with the royal 
families in Europe, to engraft himself to an old 
imperial tree." " Such were the difficulties with 
which the question was involved." " The accounts 
they gave of the favourable reception of their writings 
with the public." " Of various natural and acquired 
excellence, it is hard to say whether the British or 
French soldiers were the most (?) admirable." 



174 ENGLISH STYLE. 



PKOPPJETY. 



That our composition is free from foreign and obso- 
lete words, and correct in its grammatical forms, is so 
much gained ; but there are yet other points to be 
considered. Our grammar may be unexceptionable, 
and the words we employ all English, and yet we 
may be in error as to their application ; that is, we 
may use them in a sense which custom has not as- 
signed to them. It is clear that the wrong application 
of words must produce obscurity of expression ; and 
the following remarks are therefore made to assist 
the learner to avoid impropriety in the use of single 
words. 

IMPROPRIETY IN WORDS. 

1. A close resemblance in sound between two words 
will sometimes cause us to use one for the other. Two 
English words are frequently derived from the same 
root, and yet differ in signification. Such, are : ' ob- 
servance ' and ' observation ;' ' endurance ' and ' dura- 
tion ; ' ' ingenious ' and 6 ingenuous ; ' ' product ' and 
' produce ; ' ' import ' and ' importance ; ' ' conscience ' 
and ' consciousness ; ' ' lay ' and * lie ; ' ' timid ' and 
' timorous ; ' ' transient ' and ' transitory,' &e. 

Some writers have used the verb ' to demean one- 
self ' in the sense of ' to behave meanly ; ' whereas 
this verb, though now but seldom used, signifies no 
more than to behave generally. 

6 E'er,' a contraction for 6 ever,' is sometimes mis- 
taken for the conjunction 'ere' (before); 'genii' is 
used for ' geniuses,' &c. 

2. Mistakes in the use of words also arise from a 



PROPRIETY. 175 

close resemblance in sense. The principles of differ- 
ence are here very various ; in some cases, one word 
has an active and the other a passive meaning, as in 
the following : — ' veracity ' and ' truth ; ' < force ' and 
6 strength ; ' ' forgetfuiness ' and ' oblivion ; ' ' hatred ' 
and ' odium ; ' ' ability ' and 6 capacity ; ' ' trust ' and 
' credit ; ' 6 consent ' and ' assent/ &c. 

In another class it will be found that the one word 
differs from the other in intensity of meaning, as in 
' compunction ' and ' remorse-/ ' diligence' and 'in- 
dustry ; ' ' intention ' and c purpose ; ' ' moment ' and 
' instant ; ' i pertinacity ' and ' obstinacy ; ' ' plenty ' 
and * abundance ; ' ' temperance ' and ' abstinence,' &c. 

Again, words may differ from each other as being 
the one positive and the other negative in meaning ; 
one expressing the presence, and the other the absence 
of a quality ; as in ' desperate ' and ' hopeless ; ' ' dis- 
belief and ' unbelief; ' e injury ' and ' disadvantage ; ' 
; suspicion ' and 6 distrust,' &c. 

Lastly, a fertile source of difference of meaning 
may be found in the principle by which one word 
has a generic, and the other a specific signification. 
This difference will be found between such words 
as ' leave ' and ' quit ; ' ' bonds ' and ' fetters ; ' < list ' 
and ' catalogue ; ' ' praise ' and ' applause ; ' c way ' 
and 'road,' &C. 1 

A knowledge of these and many other differences in 
the signification of words will be of incalculable ad- 
vantage to the learner. It will not only prevent 

1 For more detailed information on this part of the study of 
English composition, the reader is referred to the Author's 
•'English Synonymes Classified and Explained." Longman 
and Co. 



176 ENGLISH STYLE. 

inaccuracy of expression, but will materially increase 
his power of writing ; especially in narrative and 
description, where a graphic delineation is more par- 
ticularly required. 

A very common error in writing is to use English 
words in a foreign sense. Some employ the word 
* assist" in the French sense of 'to be present.' To 
assist at a ceremony means in English to take part in 
it ; whereas, in French, it signifies to be present on 
the occasion. 

To - arrive ' is another word that has been used 
incorrectly. A writer says : " I am a man, and can- 
not help feeling any sorrow that can arrive at man." 
(It should be ' happen to man/) 

6 To progress ' in the sense of ' to advance ' is an 
Americanism we should do well to avoid. 

Sir Archibald Alison, in his " History of Europe," 
uses the strange word ' implemented ; ' thus : "All the 
stipulations of the treaty were implemented by the 
Austrians with true German faith." Whatever may 
have been the author's meaning, there is no authority 
for this word. 

c Party ' is a word frequently misused, and is 
vulgarly employed for c person.' One person may be 
a party to a contract, because he takes part in an 
agreement which, of necessity, comprises more than 
one ; but as applied to a single person in any other 
sense, the word is inadmissible. Some use the verb 
'to obtain' incorrectly in the sense of 'to prevail,' 
as, " This fashion could not long obtain" Obtain 
what ? The verb ' to obtain ' is transitive, and should 
be followed by its object. 



PROPRIETY. 177 

The adjective ' mutual' is frequently used im- 
properly. When two persons speak of a third, they 
should not call him their mutual, but their common, 
friend. A and B may be mutual friends, and C may 
be a common friend to A and B. 

The word ' avocation ' is often improperly used for 
vocation. The main business of a man's life may, by 
a figure, be termed his vocation, or calling ; but ' avo- 
cation ' properly means whatever may call him away 
from his usual occupation, and should never be used 
in the other sense. 

But of all cases of the abuse of words, the false 
application of the verb ' to ventilate ' is the most fla- 
grant. The word, in its original and proper sense, 
means to cause the air to circulate ; but now some 
writers speak of ventilating a subject. " The question 
has been well ventilated," says a modern writer, using 
the word in the sense of to discuss at length, or to ex- 
patiate on a subject. This is an absurd and useless 
innovation, and one which no one who has any pre- 
tensions to good taste should think of adopting. 

American writers generally use the word ' over ' in- 
correctly, as in the following sentence : " There was 
but one pair of horses in over a hundred that were 
tolerably good." (It should be ' in more than a hun- 
dred,' &c.) 

IMPROPRIETY IN PHRASES. 

The next point for consideration is impropriety in 
phrases, as distinguished from single words. An in- 
correct expression of this sort will frequently arise 
from inconsistency. The phrase ' of all others, ' used 

N 



178 ENGLISH STYLE. 

after the superlative, is open to objection. For ex- 
ample : " It celebrates the Church of England as the 
most perfect of all others" Since the writer here 
means to distinguish the Church of England from all 
others, how can he properly speak of it as the most 
perfect of all others ? It should be ' as more per- 
fect than any other/ or, 'as the most perfect of all 
Churches.' 

The expression 'among others,' as commonly ap- 
plied, does not seem very philosophical. It has been 
said, " Among other things, he spoke of his adven- 
tures in India." Now surely we should here say, as 
ivell as, or besides other things, and not among them ; 
for the phrase does not mean that he spoke of these 
adventures as mixed up with, or together with other 
things, but apart from them. 

Faults of this sort are often made through inatten- 
tion; as, "I do not reckon that we want a genius 
more than the rest of our neighbours." This sentence 
was written by Dean Swift, and the following, open 
to a similar objection, are also from his pen : — "I had 
like to have gotten one or two broken heads for my 
impertinence." " The first project was to shorten 
discourse by cutting polysyllables into one" " I so- 
lemnly declare that I have not wilfully committed 
the least mistake" The terms in the last sentence 
are incompatible ; for a mistake never can be wilful. 
When Addison wrote — 

" So the pure limpid stream, when foul with stains 
Of rushing torrents," &c,, 

he fell into the same sort of inaccuracy. A stream 
cannot be pure and limpid when it is foul with stains. 



PROPRIETY. 179 

It is not uncommon to meet with the expression 
' the greater majority ' incorrectly applied ; as, "The 
greater majority voted for the former member." A 
member might be returned to Parliament by a greater 
majority on one occasion than on another ; but in any 
one election there could not be two majorities to 
compare together ; and consequently the expression, 
thus applied, is incorrect. (It should be ' a large ma- 
jority.') 

Another inconsistency is found in the expression 
so frequently met with, 'different to. 9 These two 
words, when used together, imply a contradiction. 
' Different ' means ' bearing asunder ; ' that is, going 
two ways, apart from each other ; whereas ' to ' de- 
notes approximation, or the coming together of things. 
We differ from others when we do not agree with 
them in opinion. Things are sometimes different 
from, and not to, each other. 

It is satisfactory to observe that our best writers 
are now beginning to reject the preposition 'to ' after 
the words ' averse ' and ( aversion.' ' To ' is here 
open to the same objection as in the last-mentioned 
case. The word ' averse ' means ' turning from,' and 
we should say, properly, averse from, and not to, any- 
thing we may dislike. 

We occasionally meet with a verb followed by a 
preposition, where no preposition is required ; as, 
"He investigated into the matter.'' This is incorrect; 
a magistrate may inquire into or about a case, but he 
investigates the case itself. 

Irving, in his "Life of Washington," speaks of him 
as being "taken down with a fever." This is not 
English. 



180 ENGLISH STYLE. 

Some American writers use the preposition ' of,' 
instead of ' at/ after the verb * to smell / thus, " He 
smelt of hartshorn/' instead of " He smelt/' or " in- 
haled hartshorn." 

Sir Archibald Alison says, " They were not long 
of doing," &c. (This is a Scotticism ; the of is re- 
dundant.) 

The prepositions ' except ' and ' without ' should 
never be followed by a proposition. It is not un- 
common to meet with such phrases as, "Except a 
different arrangement be made," or,- " Without some- 
thing should happen to prevent it." These are in- 
correct forms, and their use should be carefully 
avoided. For these prepositions the writer should 
substitute the conjunction ' unless.' 

COMMON-PLACE EXPRESSIONS. 

An offence against propriety of style frequently 
appears in the form of common-place expressions, or 
vulgarisms. Such phrases or words as are either not 
expressive of the ideas the writer intends to convey, 
or do not convey them fully, are also open to criticism 
on the same grounds. In the following sentences we 
find examples of this fault : — " These circumstances 
might choke the faith of a philosopher." " The kings 
of Syria and Egypt worried each other." "Every 
year, a new flower beats all the old ones." " A pas- 
sage in a Greek or Latin author which is not blown 
upon" " After having surveyed this mass of mor- 
tality, as it were, in the lump" " He therefore made 
(composed?) tragedies." "The critics have made 
(written ?) dissertations." " A few reflections will 



PROPRIETY. 181 

help us to make (form ?) a true judgment." " They 
hoisted the poor bewildered wretch on to a horse/' 
&c. 

OBSCURITY FROM ELLIPSIS. 

Obscurity may arise from many other causes be- 
sides those already mentioned; and, firstly, from some 
defect in the expression. Ellipsis, or the omission of 
certain words, occurs in all languages. This occasion- 
ally gives rise to obscurity, and in all such cases the 
ellipsis is not allowable. For example : " To do that 
is righteous in thy sight." " We speak that we do 
know." This form of expression is now obsolete ; we 
must say, " To do that which is righteous/' &c. " We 
speak that which we know," or " what we know," &c. 

One form of ellipsis, of very frequent occurrence 
with young people, ought to be most studiously avoided, 
viz., the ellipsis of the infinitive mood, as in the follow- 
ing example: " Have you written your exercise ? No; 
but I am going to." (! !) In such cases the whole form 
of the infinitive should be always expressed. 

Secondly, either an affectation of conciseness, or the 
rapidity of thought natural to some writers, will oc- 
casionally produce more serious defects of expression. 
For example, "I have a deep sense of your kind action." 
' Sense' here means an inward feeling ; and we cannot 
feel an action. It should be, " I have a deep sense of 
the kindness of your action." Again : " You ought to 
contemn all the wit in the world against you." It should 
be, c all the wit in the world that is directed against 
you.' " A savage is a happier state of life than a 
slave at the oar/' Things are here brought together 
which are incongruous. We may compare a savage 

n3 



182 ENGLISH STYLE. 

with a slave ; but neither the one nor the other can 
be compared with a state of life. The sentence may- 
be thus corrected : " The state of life of a savage 
is far happier than that of a slave at the oar." 
"This courage among the adversaries of the court was 
inspired into them by various incidents, for every 
one of which, I think* the ministers, or, if that was 
the case, the minister alone, is to answer." If what 
was the case ? There is nothing here to which we 
can refer the pronoun 'that;' and we are left to 
guess that the writer meant ' if there was but one 
minister' 

OBSCURITY FROM WRONG ARRANGEMENT. 

A wrong arrangement is another source of obscu- 
rity. Here we imagine, on a first perusal, that the 
sentence has one meaning ; and we find, on a second, 
that it has another. For example: "It contained 
a warrant for conducting me and my retinue to 
Traldragdubb, or Trildrogdrib, for it is pronounced 
both ways, as near as I can remember, by a party of 
ten horse" The words in italics should come imme- 
diately after the noun 6 retinue.' " I had several 
patients died in that hospital of fever." Here it 
should be observed that the pronoun 'who' must be 
placed before the verb, and that 'of fever' must im- 
mediately follow the verb 'died;' thus: "I had several 
patients who died of fever in that hospital." "I per- 
ceived that it had been scoured with half an eye." 
Here, firstly, ' with half an eye ' is a vulgarism ; 
secondly, could anything be scoured with half an eye ? 
or, did he perceive it with half an eye ? "I have 
hopes that when Will confronts him, and all the ladies 



PROPRIETY. 183 

on whose behalf he engages him cast kind looks and 
wishes at their champion, he will have some chance." 
Here, ' all the ladies,' &c, seems at first to be go- 
verned by the verb ' confronts/ but we afterwards 
find that this expression is the subject of the verb 
4 cast.' Insert the adverb ' when ' before e all the 
ladies/ and the ambiguity vanishes. The following 
sentence is open to a similar exception : " He ad- 
vanced against the fierce ancient, imitating his ad- 
dress, his pace, and career, as well as the vigour 
of his horse and his own skill would allow." This 
obscurity may be cleared up by substituting c as far 
as ' for ' as well as/ &c. " Diocletian passed the 
nine last years of his life in a private condition." (It 
should be, ' the last nine years; ' there could not have 
been more than one last year.) " Of the twelve 
Caesars, three alone died natural deaths." (It should 
be, 6 only three.') 

OBSCURITY FROM USING THE SAME WORD TOO FRE- 
QUENTLY, OR IN DIFFERENT SENSES. 

In the same sentence, we should not repeat a word 
too frequently, as in the following : "It is of great 
consequence that we pay the greatest attention to such 
matters; for they contribute to our welfare in a much 
greater measure than we generally imagine." In this 
sentence we have the three degrees of the adjective, 
great, greater, greatest. The writer might have said, 
" It is of the utmost importance that we pay the 
strictest attention," &c. 

This repetition occurs most frequently with pro- 
nouns, where it is a fertile source of obscurity ; for 

N 4 



184 ENGLISH STYLE. 

example : u He promised his friend to send him his 
book." Whose book? — his own, or his friend's? Again: 
" One may have an air which proceeds from a just 
sufficiency and knowledge of the matter before him, 
which may naturally produce some motions of his 
head and body which might become the bench better 
than the bar." 

A word should never be repeated in the same sen- 
tence in different meanings; as, "Gregory favoured 
the undertaking for no other reason than this, that the 
manager favoured his friend," (Say, resembled his 
friend.) "They held the doctrine that it is not wrong 
to hold possession of ill-gotten goods, but that the 
fault lies in allowing ourselves to be detected." (Say, 
retain possession, &c.) " Any reasons of doubt which 
he might have in this case, would have been reasons 
of doubt in the case of other men, who may give 
more, but cannot give more evident signs of thought 
to their fellow-creatures." Here, ' more* is first an 
adjective, and then the sign of the comparative. The 
sentence should stand, ' who may give more numerous, 
but cannot give more evident, signs,' &c. 

" The sharks who prey upon the inadvertency of 
young heirs, are more pardonable than those who 
trespass upon the good fortune of those who treat 
them upon the footing of choice and respect." (The 
repetition of who in these three different senses is the 
source of much confusion and obscurity.) 

The pronoun ' they,' when repeated, often causes 
much ambiguity ; as, " They were persons of such 
moderate intellects, even before they were impaired 
by passion." A similar obscurity is produced by the 
frequent repetition of the pronoun ' it.' 



PROPRIETY. 185 

OBSCURITY FROM UNCERTAIN REFERENCE. 

Another cause of obscurity lies in the use of pro- 
nouns when it does not at first appear to what they 
refer ; for example : — 

"The laws of nature are truly what my Lord 
Bacon styles his aphorisms, — laws of laws. Civil laws 
are always imperfect, and often false deductions from 
them, or applications of them; nay, they stand, in many 
instances, in direct opposition to them" Probably 
every one would not see, on a first reading, that the 
pronoun them here always refers to the laws of nature, 
and they to civil laws. 

" I like so much to see the corn-fields ; it was cut 
when we were there, so we saw it carried away." 

" On Wednesday, the rat ventured into the kitchen, 
and Mr. B., having loaded a pistol, drove it into the 
garden." 

"It has happened the third time in as many months." 

" Cicero returned to Rome, about the middle of 
November, to assist at Milo's ivedding, who married 
Fausta, a rich and noble lady, the daughter of Sylla 
the dictator." 

OBSCURITY ARISING FROINI TOO ARTIFICIAL A STRUCTURE 
OF SENTENCES. 

The structure of sentences, of which more is 
said in another part of this work, is a subject for 
the student's careful consideration. Long sentences 
should be, in general, avoided ; and when employed, 
care should be taken that their members be similarly 
constructed, so that, if taken to pieces, each member 



186 ENGLISH STYLE. 

might constitute a distinct sentence. Some writers 
on composition are of opinion that parentheses should 
be altogether discarded, on the grounds that a paren- 
thesis is only an awkward way of inserting a circum- 
stance that would be much better expressed in a 
separate sentence. This, however, is too severe a 
rule. Parentheses, when short, are perfectly admis- 
sible ; but they should neither be very long, nor occur 
too frequently. The following passage from Cole- 
ridge's " Aids to Keflection," will strikingly illustrate 
the above remarks : — 

" How any one who calmly considers what a new 
birth of the soul implies — a new birth solemnly an- 
nounced, by the Lord of Heaven and Earth, to man as 
a thing in which all men are concerned, which a 
teacher in the chosen nation ought already to have 
known, which translates the subject of it into the 
kingdom of heaven — can proceed to explain it, accord- 
ing to the ordinary High Church doctrine, into some- 
thing so impotent and shadowy, that if it were to 
vanish from the precincts of religious belief, no serious 
practical Christian, as I fully believe, would feel that 
he had sustained any loss, or that anything had gone 
from him, is to me inconceivable" 

If only the words in italics had been retained, this 
period would have been sufficiently clear and com- 
prehensible ; but, as it stands, the sentence is so 
overloaded with circumstances and parentheses, that 
it is next to impossible for the reader to see the 
connection of its principal members. 

The construction of the following period, extracted 
from Dean Trench's very interesting little work on 
proverbs, is open to a similar objection : — 



PROPRIETY. 187 

" In this aspect, as having been used at a great 
critical moment, and as part of the moral influence 
brought to bear on that occasion for effecting a great 
result, no proverb of man's can be compared with that 
one which the Lord used, when He met his future 
apostle, but at this time his persecutor, in the way, 
and warned him of the fruitlessness and folly of a longer 
resistance to a might which must overcome him, and 
with still greater harm to himself at the last." 

Here there are materials for at least two, if not 
three, sentences. 

OBSCURITY FROM THE USE OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

Strictly speaking, technical terms are not con- 
sidered as belonging to the language, because they 
are not in common use, and are, consequently, unin- 
telligible to the general reader. They form, indeed, 
a distinct dialect, and are understood only by a com- 
paratively small class. In a treatise on some parti- 
cular art or science, addressed to its students or pro- 
fessors, technical terms are, of course, indispensable. 
They a may be also occasionally introduced in deline- 
ation of character. 

A sailor would term the hinder part of everything 
6 the stern.' Instead of saying he was unfortunate, 
he would call it ' being on his beam ends,' or ' cast 
on a lee shore.' With him, also, meeting an acquain- 
tance would be ' sighting ' his friend. In the lan- 
guage of the stable, the right and the left-hand sides 
of the road are called the 'off' and the 'near' sides. 
A certain mode of joining boards is termed by car- 
penters ' dovetailing.' Military men would style their 
lodgings, comfortable c quarters,' as a sailor would 



188 ENGLISH STYLE. 

say <a good berth.' Merchants use the word * advices' 
in the sense of ' news ' or ' intelligence.' They talk 
of c advices ' from Hamborough, and they speak of a 
letter as a c favour,' &c. All these, and many other 
terms, are familiarly known in certain professions and 
trades, and though many of such words are probably 
understood by a large class of readers, they are not used 
in the current language of polite society, nor should 
they be introduced in writing on general subjects. 

OBSCURITY ARISING FROM DOUBLE MEANING. 

Equivocal expressions naturally create a doubt con- 
cerning their meaning ; and they should be, therefore, 
always avoided. These may be found in the use of al- 
most every part of speech. To begin with prepositions. 
The preposition of sometimes has an active, and some- 
times a passive, signification. For example : " The love 
of 'his family," &c. Does this mean the love he bore his 
family, or the love his family bore him ? If the for- 
mer, we had better say, " His love for his family ;" 
if the latter, " The love of his family towards him." 
Again, " The Reformation of Luther," may mean the 
reformation effected by, or on, Luther, &c. 

The conjunction 'or' is sometimes used equivocally ; 
as, " The Greeks worshipped Zeus, or Jupiter." To 
those who do not know that Zeus and Jupiter are 
the names of one and the same heathen divinity, it 
might here seem that the Greeks worshipped either 
the one or the other. 

Again, in pronouns : " She united the great body 
of the people in her and their interest." Her may be 
a personal or a possessive pronoun ; and it may not 



PROPRIETY. 189 

be at once clear to every reader for which of the two 
it is here intended. 

In adjectives: — A ' fearful' man may signify one 
who inspires fear in others, or one who is himself 
affected by that passion. In the following sentence, 
the word ' mortal ' leaves the sense ambiguous : "As 
for such animals as are ' mortal] or noxious, we have 
a right to destroy them." i Mortal ' means either 
subject to death, as ' a mortal creature/ or causing 
death, as ' a mortal wound,' and in the above sen- 
tence the wrong sense of the word seems more readily 
suggested. 

In verbs : as, " He spoke of nothing more than what 
his predecessor did" (It should be, 6 had mentioned.') 
" I have long since learned to like nothing but what 
you do" (you like). 

The word ' only ' is a fertile source of ambiguity. 
This word may be used either as an adjective, or as 
an adverb, and the meaning of a sentence in which it 
is found will mainly depend on its place ; thus : " Not 
only Jesuits can equivocate." Now this may mean that 
Jesuits are not the only persons who can equivocate ; 
or, that to equivocate is not the only thing that Jesuits 
can do. If the former meaning be intended, the sen- 
tence should run thus : " Not Jesuits only can equi 
. vocate " {i. e. others as well as they can equivocate). 
If the latter, u Jesuits can not only equivocate " (i e , 
they can do other things). 

A similar difficulty arises from confounding the 
pronoun 'few' with 'a few.' u Few people will 
assent to the truth of this proposition," means that 
not many will allow it to be true ; whereas, " A few 
people will assent," &c, means that a small number will 



190 ENGLISH STYLE. 

assent, &c. In the same way, " He gave him little 
encouragement," differs from " He gave him a little 
encouragement." 

Various other English phrases have a double mean- 
ing, and great care should be taken in using them. 
Such are, ' not the least ; ' ' not the smallest ; ' ' no- 
thing less than,' &c. 

THE UNINTELLIGIBLE. 

The unintelligible in writing arises from the author's 
confusion of ideas ; and here, if we can make out his 
meaning, it will be the result of the reader's sagacity, 
rather than the writer's clearness. Take the following 
sentence : "I have often observed that the superiority 
among these (coffee-house politicians) proceeds from 
an opinion of gallantry and fashion." Whose opinion 
is here meant ? and secondly, what opinion ? There 
is here no definite meaning, and we are left to supply 
the author's intention by conjecture. Here is another 
in which the logic is grievously at fault : " But if 
happiness is the satisfaction of all our faculties, the 
life of Paradise must have exercised them all. The 
senses were gratified; for God made every tree to 
grow that was pleasant to the eye." This evidently 
implies that the gratification of the senses consists in 
the gratification of the eye alone ; and moreover, that 
pleasure through the sense of sight is produced only 
by trees. The following sentence occurs in a recent 
work : " Want of mechanical power was the great 
desideratum." A desideratum means something we 
do not possess, but which we desire to possess. The 
writer probably meant that mechanical power was the 
great desideratum — surely not the want of it f 



PRECISION. 191 

Writers are sometimes unintelligible from affecta- 
tion of excellence. What meaning can be discovered 
in the following sentences ? — " This temper of soul 
keeps our understanding tight about us" " A man is 
not qualified for a butt who has not a good deal of 
wit and vivacity in the ridiculous side of his cha- 
racter" " I seldom see a noble building, or any 
great piece of magnificence or pomp, but I think how 
little is all this to Jill the idea of an immortal soul." 
But the following is the climax of absurdity : " If the 
savour of things lies cross to honesty, if the fancy be 
florid, and the appetite high towards the subaltern 
beauties and lower order of w T orldly symmetries and 
proportions, the conduct will infallibly turn this 
latter way." Another : " Men must acquire a very 
peculiar and strong habit of turning their eye in- 
wards, in order to explore the interior regions and 
recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep 
thought, the private seats of fancy, and the wastes 
and wildernesses, as well as the more fruitful and 
cultivated tracts of this obscure climate." 



PRECISION 

There are two styles of writing directly opposed to 
each other — the concise and the diffusive. The concise 
writer condenses his thoughts so as to express them 
in the fewest possible words. He retrenches all 
superfluity of expression, acting on the principle that 
whatever does not assist, interferes with the meaning. 
The same thought is never repeated. The most 
effective and most exact terms are selected, and his 



192 ENGLISH STYLE. 

whole composition is rather suggestive than fully 
expressive of his meaning. Embellishment is quite 
compatible with precision of style ; but ornament, in 
this case, is used rather to illustrate, and add force to 
the thought, than to impart pleasure to the reader. 
With such a writer, language is viewed merely as an 
instrument of utility, not of luxury. The diffusive 
writer, on the other hand, adopts a directly contrary 
style. His thoughts are placed in a variety of lights. 
He is not anxious to express them in one sentence, 
but he repeats them in different terms ; and though 
his language is not forcible or impressive, it may be 
not deficient in perspicuity. True, it takes the reader 
a longer time to understand it ; but he reaches the 
same end, though by a more circuitous route. Such 
writers are fond of accumulating terms, and building 
up long periods, and they have a tendency to excess 
of ornament. 

It cannot be said that either of these styles is posi- 
tively good or bad ; but they are, both of them, open 
to serious objection, when carried to excess. An 
elaborate brevity is the sure way to obscurity of 
expression ; and we are told by Quintilian that our 
writings should be not only clear, but that it should 
be impossible to mistake their meaning, — a quality 
which no composition could possess in which there 
were not sufficient words to convey the sense fairly 
to the reader. On the other hand, an over-diffusive 
style is tiresome and fatiguing. It is discouraging to 
be obliged to wade through a multitude of unnecessary 
words containing but a small amount of sense ; and such 
a style can never command much interest or attention. 
However, most writers may be placed in one or the 



pp^cision. 193 

other of these classes ; and in either of the styles 
there may be much merit in the composition. 

But the style, whether concise or diffusive, should 
vary with the occasion. In general, we need not be 
so concise in speaking as in writing ; and in writing 
itself, some subjects require much more conciseness 
than others, and vice versa. In narrative or descrip- 
tion, conciseness of style is a great merit. It com- 
mands attention, interests the imagination, and is 
pleasing to the mind, by giving enough, and yet not 
too much, exercise to the faculties. In subjects where 
the understanding alone is addressed, a more diffu- 
sive, expository style is, perhaps, preferable. The 
understanding does not, in general, seize ideas so 
rapidly as the imagination ; and therefore, in all 
matters of reasoning and instruction, a less concise 
style is recommended. 

Of these two qualities of style, conciseness is far 
the more important to attain ; for though brevity 
may not be equally adapted to every subject, we 
should in all cases avoid redundancy of expression. 
We shall therefore point out to the student certain 
practices he should avoid when endeavouring to give 
vigour and closeness to his writing. 

1. Tautology. This is a repetition of the sense, 
either in the same or in other terms. The following 
passage furnishes an example of this fault : — 

" The dawn is overcast — the morning lours, — 
And heavily in clouds brings on the day." 

Here we have the same sense in three distinct 
forms. 

" I look upon it as my duty, so far as God hath 
o 



194 ENGLISH STYLE. 

enabled me, and as long as I keep within the bounds 
of truth, duty, and decency." It could not, surely, 
be any man's duty to transgress the bounds of duty. 
" I must be forced to get home ; partly by stealth, 
and partly by force." To be forced by force is 
an unwarrantable redundancy of expression. " How 
many are there by whom these tidings of good news 
were never heard ? " (that is, news of news). " Never 
did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal 
love and esteem of all men." Here the word ' all * 
is superfluous, as the idea is already expressed in 
6 universal.' 

" The writings of Buchanan, and especially his 
' Scottish History,' are written with strength, perspi- 
cuity, and neatness." 

" Some writers have confined their attention to 
trifling minutice of style." 

" The complication of the old laws of France had 
given rise to a chaos of confusion" 

" The history, of necessity, became in a great degree, 
for the most part, a parliamentary one." 

" It was founded mainly on the entire monopoly of 
the whole trade with the colonies." 

" It unfortunately happened that our reporter was 
engaged elsewhere when the first performance took 
place ; and we are therefore unable to give any report 
of the performance ; but for all that, we have heard 
the performance gave the greatest satisfaction." 

Another form of this fault is where sentences are 
lengthened by doubling or accumulating terms closely 
resembling each other in sense. This practice adds 
nothing to the sense of the expression; it only serves 



PRECISION. 195 

to confuse the mind of the reader, and weakens the 
whole effect of the passage. The following extract 
from Lord Shaftesbury's " Characteristics " has been 
often cited as containing a striking example of this 
form of tautology : — 

" Now if the fabric of the mind or temper appeared 
to us such as it really is ; if we saw it impossible to 
remove hence any one good or orderly affection, or to 
introduce any ill or disorderly one, without drawing 
on, in some degree, that dissolute state which, at its 
height, is confessed to be so miserable, it would then 
undoubtedly be confessed, that since no ill, immoral, 
or unjust action can be committed without either a 
new inroad and breach on the temper and passions, 
or a further advancing of that execution already done ; 
whoever did ill, or acted in prejudice to his integrity, 
good nature, or worth, would of necessity act with 
greater cruelty towards himself than he who scrupled 
not to swallow what was poisonous, or who with his 
own hands should voluntarily mangle or wound his 
outward form or constitution, natural limbs or body" 

No one can rise from the perusal of this sentence 
without a feeling of dissatisfaction, not to say of dis- 
gust. The mind is so encumbered with a superfluity 
of unmeaning words, that the sense of the passage is 
involved in hopeless confusion, and the whole inten- 
tion of the author is defeated. And after all this 
parade and pomp of language, he merely wishes to 
show that by every vicious action, the mind is as 
much injured as the body would be by the infliction 
of a wound. 

Another form of tautology is where an adjective 
expresses nothing more than what is implied in the 



196 ENGLISH STYLE. 

meaning of the noun to which it is affixed ; as, 'a 
hollow cavern ; ' 6 umbrageous shade ; ' ' a round ball ; ' 
'brilliant radiance;' 'a square cube;' 'foul dirt;' 
' unmeaning nonsense,' &c. 

2. Pleonasm. The difference between tautology 
and pleonasm is, that by the former the sense is re- 
peated ; whereas by the latter nothing is added to it. 
In this sentence, " They returned back again to the 
same city from whence they came forth/* the words 
' back/ ' again,' ' same,' ' from,' and ' forth/ are super- 
fluous. They are of no use, they add nothing to the 
sense, and should therefore be expunged; and the 
sentence will then stand : " They returned to the city 
whence they came." " I went home full of a great 
many reflections/' If he was full, it adds nothing 
to the sense to say s a great many.' Better, " I went 
home full of reflections." " If he happens to have 
any leisure upon his hands" ('upon his hands ' is re- 
dundant, and may be dispensed with). " The ever- 
lasting club treats all other clubs with an eye of con- 
tempt" The writer might have here said, ' regards ' or 
' treats ' all other clubs with contempt ; but to treat 
with an eye is incorrect, as well as pleonastic. The 
form of sentence beginning, There are .... which 
are, &c, is also frequently a pleonasm. It may be 
occasionally used in introducing a subject, as giving 
it a certain importance ; but, as a rule, it is better to 
avoid the particle ' there ; ' and instead of writing, 
" There are few people who are not aware/' &c, say, 
" Few people are not aware," &c. 

The phrases ' more or less,' ' as it were/ ' so to 
speak/ and some others, are frequently superfluous. 
They are often introduced merely to occupy space on 



QUESTIONS ON STYLE. 197 

the paper, and are, in a great majority of cases, un- 
necessary to the sense. 

Many words called expletives are not on that ac- 
count always pleonastic. Do and did, when used as 
signs of tenses, are frequently indispensable, and 
sometimes emphatic. In negative and interrogative 
forms of the verb they are necessary ; as : "I do not 
think so." "Do you wish to see him ? * " What I did 
publicly affirm then, I do affirm now," &c. But in 
other cases they are unnecessary, and unidiomatic, 
and the use of them in modern English is faulty. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PAKT V. 

1. What is meant by the word " Style ? " 

2. Whence is this word derived ? 

3. Mention some qualities by which style may be charac- 

terised. 

4. Which is the most important quality of style ? 

5. Under what three heads may clearness of style be con- 

sidered ? 

6. What is implied by " purity" of style ? 

7. Are any foreign words admissible into English ? 

8. How are obsolete words to be considered ? 

9. By what rule should we be guided in the adoption of new 

words ? 

10. What is meant by a grammatical error ? 

11. About what period of our literature did English writers 

begin to pay some attention to grammar ? 

12. Give some examples of grammatical errors in the use of 

pronouns. 

13. What is meant by a grammatical inconsistency? 

14. By what rule should we be guided in the number of the 

verb, when its subject is a noun of multitude ? 
O 3 



198 ENGLISH STYLE. 

15. In what number must the verb be put, when it has several 

singular subjects connected by ' or' or ' nor? 9 

16. What grammatical errors are frequently made when the 

words * each,' ' every,' ' either,' and ' neither ' are used 
as subjects ? 

1 7. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive ? 

18. When should the indicative mood be used after a con- 

junction ? 

19. What law regulates the sequence of moods and tenses in 

English grammar ? 

20. What kind of adjectives have no degrees of comparison ? 

21. What inaccuracies frequently occur in the use of the com- 

parative and superlative degrees ? 

22. What is the effect of two negatives in English ? 

23. Give some examples of the wrong use of the negative and 

disjunctive particles. 

24. State some cases in which it is right to use adjectives as 

adverbs. 



1. What is meant by an idiom ? 

2. Give some examples of English idioms. 

3. What faults are frequently made under this head ? 

4. To what cause may errors in idiom be referred ? 

5. Give some examples of unidiomatic expressions. 

6. In the use of what part of speech do we meet with most 

mistakes of idiom ? 



1. What is meant by propriety of style? 

2. State some causes of error in the use of words. 

3. When are words said to be synonymous ? 

4. What classification may be made of synonymous words ? 

5. Give some examples of English words erroneously used in a 

foreign sense. 

6. Give some cases of incorrect phrases often used. 

7. How may obscurity arise from ellipsis ? 

8. From what other sources does obscurity sometimes arise ? 

9. What may be remarked, under this head, on the structure of 

sentences ? 



QUESTIONS ON STYLE. 199 

10. What is meant by technical terms ? 

11. How far are they admissible in writing on general subjects ? 



1. Show the difference between a concise and a diffusive style. 

2. Which is, on the whole, to be preferred ? 

3. Which is the more difficult to attain ? 

4. What is meant by " Tautology ? " 

5. Describe some forms of tautology. 

6. What is the difference between pleonasm and tautology ? 

7. Give some examples. 



O 4 



200 



PART VI. 

ON SENTENCES. 



SENTENCES. 

A sentence is the expression of some one complete 
thought; though it is not, of necessity, confined to 
one proposition. * 

Sentences are simple or complex. A simple sen- 
tence contains one member ; as, " So saying, they 
approached the gate." Complex sentences contain 
two members ; as, " Straws swim on the surface ; but 
pearls lie at the bottom." 

The members themselves are sometimes complex, 
and may be divided into clauses ; as, " The man is 
arrived, and has brought his son with him ; but the 
magistrate is engaged, and their evidence cannot be 
now received." 

The members are not always separate ; one is some- 
times inserted in another ; as, " When Henry VIII., 
who was then nineteen years old, ascended the En- 
glish throne, the nation received him with universal 
acclamation." Here, ' who was then nineteen years 
old' is inserted in the proposition, 'When Henry 
VIII. ascended,' &c. 



SENTENCES. 201 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 



There are degrees of simplicity in sentences. " The 
master spoke" is as simple a sentence as could be 
written. " This morning the master spoke severely 
to the scholars " is also a simple sentence, as it con- 
tains but one verb ; but it is less simple than the 
former, as it specifies several circumstances. The 
simpler the sentence, the less variety of arrangement 
will it admit of ; but even in the simplest, some variety 
may be introduced. 

In English, the order of the simplest sentence 
generally runs thus : 1. The subject ; 2. The 
verb; 3. The object (when the verb is transitive); 
or the predicate (when the verb is intransitive). 
But even this order is sometimes inverted for the 
sake of vivacity ; as, " Great was his astonishment." 
" Rapid was his fall," &c. It is a question whether 
any order of words in a sentence should be called 
natural, for practice differs in this respect in different 
languages ; so that the order which is considered 
natural in one language is unnatural in another. 

Another example of a deviation from the general 
rule of order is occasionally found in the case of a 
transitive verb preceded by the objective noun, and 
followed by a subject ; as, " Silver and gold have I 
none," &c. 

In some few cases, viz., of a command, a question, 
and a supposition, the verb precedes the subject; as, 
"Come not hither" ('ye' understood). "Were they 
present ? " " Had I thought so," &c. 

Very frequently, to give a particular emphasis, an 
adverb, or a preposition belonging to a compound 



202 ENGLISH STYLE. 

verb, begins the sentence ; as, " On they came." 
"Down fell the tree/' &c. 

In negations the negative adverb is generally joined 
to the verb ; as, " I never beheld such a spectacle." 
But, to give vivacity to the expression, the adverb is 
sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence ; 
as, "Never did I behold such a spectacle." "Not 
every man has power to see," &c. 

When a sentence begins with (1.) a conjunction; 
(2.) a call to attention ; or (3.) an expletive, the em- 
phatic terms will be as effective in the second part as 
in the beginning of the sentence ; as : 1. "But these 
things we must consider on some future occasion." 

2. " Ladies and gentlemen, the kindness you have 
shown me I can never sufficiently appreciate ;" and 

3. " There appears to be a wide difference between 
these statements." 

Conjunctions are said to be unfavourable to viva- 
city; and certainly nothing is more wearisome or un- 
enlivening than a frequent repetition of them. The 
figure of speech called by the ancient Greeks asyn- 
deton, has a wonderful effect in promoting vivacity 
of expression. By this figure, all connectives are su- 
perseded by the evident and close connection of the 
propositions themselves. Caesar's well-known letter, 
" I came ; I saw ; I conquered," is an example. If 
he had written, " I came, and I saw, and I con- 
quered," all the animation and force of the expression 
would have been lost. 

On the other hand, when it is desired that the 
attention dwell on several objects successively, then 
repetition of the conjunction becomes not only effec- 
tive, but in some cases a positive beauty. By the 



SENTENCES. 203 

figure termed polysyndeton, connectives coupling 
single words are continually repeated. Of this the 
following is a striking example : " While the earth 
remaineth, seed-time, and harvest, and cold, and 
heat, and summer, and winter, and day, and night, 
shall not cease." l 

ON COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

A celebrated writer on rhetoric divides complex 
sentences into periods, and, what he calls, loose sen- 
tences. A period is a complex sentence, in which 
the sense is suspended till the whole is brought 
to a close. The word " period " properly signifies a 
circuit, and it is applied to such sentences, because 
we must complete the circuit of the meaning, that 
is, read them quite through, before we can arrive at 
their full signification. The following is an example 
of the period : " Perhaps the reason why common 
critics are inclined to prefer a judicious and metho- 
dical genius to a great and fruitful one, is, because 
they find it easier for them to pursue their observa- 
tions through a uniform and bounded work of art, 
than to comprehend the vast and various extent of 
nature." The proper test of a period is, that if you 
stop at the end of any clause, the preceding words 

1 A beautiful example of this figure may be found in Milton's 
" Paradise Lost," book iii. 1. 41, where the poet is bewailing his 
loss of sight : — 

" But not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine," &c. 



204 ENGLISH STYLE, 

will not form determined sense. This is evidently 
the case with the example above quoted. It is plain 
that we could not stop at the word 'one;' and when 
we come to the conjunction * because,' we must read 
to the end to understand the whole meaning. 

The following are examples of periods : — 

"As the whole earth, and the entire duration of 
those perishing things contained in it, is altogether 
inconsiderable, or, in the prophet's expressive style, 
less than nothing, in respect of eternity, who sees 
not that every reasonable man ought to so frame his 
actions as that they may most effectually contribute 
to promote his eternal interest ? " 

" Since it is a truth evident by the light of nature, 
that there is a sovereign, omniscient Spirit, who 
alone can make us for ever happy, or for ever miser- 
able, it plainly follows that a conformity to His will, 
and not any prospect of temporal advantage, is the 
sole rule whereby every man who acts up to the prin- 
ciples of reason must govern and square his actions." 

" As the sunbeams, united in a burning-glass to a 
point, have greater force than when they are darted 
from a plain superficies, so the virtues and actions of 
one man, drawn together in a single story, strike 
upon our minds a stronger and more lively impression 
than the scattered relation of many men and many 
actions." 

" If we consider to what perfection we know the 
courses, periods, order, distances, and proportions of 
the several great bodies of the universe, at least such 
as fall within our view, we shall have cause to admire 
the sagacity and industry of the mathematicians, and 
the power of numbers and geometry well applied." 



SENTENCES. 205 

" Whether we consider his peculiar significancy of 
expression, or the points of his style ; the sweetness 
of his lyric, or the ease and perspicuity of his moral 
poems ; the sportive severity of his satire, or his ta- 
lents in wit and humour, Dryden, in point of genius, 
seems to bear a closer affinity to Horace than to any 
other ancient or modern author." 

In loose sentences there will be always at least 
one place before the end, at which, if we stop, the 
words already written will form complete and inde- 
pendent sense ; as, " They next erected a crucifix, 
and, prostrating themselves before it, returned thanks 
to God for conducting their voyage to such a happy 
issue." Here, if we stop at the word ' crucifix,' the 
sense is perfect in itself. In a period the members 
depend on each other. In a loose sentence the former 
members do not, of necessity, depend on the latter ; 
whereas the latter wholly depend on the former. 
Both these forms of sentence have their advantages 
and disadvantages. The period would appear the more 
artificial, and the loose sentence the more natural 
form of expression. But that style is undoubtedly 
the best which has a fair admixture of both. Perhaps, 
in more elevated subjects, where dignity is required, 
the period should be more frequently introduced ; and 
the loose sentence is better adapted to familiar sub- 
jects, such as essays, letters, &c. 

Here follow some examples of loose sentences : — 

" When a writer has distinguished himself in his 
studied performances, and delighted us in those works 
which he intended for our perusal, we become in- 
terested in all that concerns him, and wish to be 
acquainted with his ideas as they flowed, without any 



206 ENGLISH STYLE. 

view to their publication in the open communications 
of a private and friendly correspondence." 

" The first and fundamental requisite of epistolary 
writing is to be natural and simple ; for a stiff and 
laboured manner is as bad in a letter as it is in con- 
versation." 

" I consider a generous mind as the noblest work 
of the creation, and am persuaded, that wherever it 
resides, no real merit can be wanting." 

" The most fertile and populous provinces were 
converted into deserts, in which were scattered the 
ruins of villages and cities that afforded shelter to a 
few miserable inhabitants, whom chance had spared, 
or the sword of the enemy, wearied with destroying, 
had spared/' 

" It was his [Addison's] principal endeavour to 
avoid all harshness and severity of diction ; he is 
therefore sometimes verbose in his transitions and 
connections, and sometimes descends too much to the 
language of conversation; yet, if his language had 
been less idiomatical, it might have lost somewhat of 
its genuine Anglicism." 

Of these two styles, the periodical and^the loose, 
the following passages are examples : — 

" The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely re- 
conciled to the disappointment of his views upon the 
Gallic provinces, before the unexpected loss of Italy 
wounded his pride, as well as power, in a still more 
sensible part. The long absence of the emperors had 
filled Rome with discontent and indignation ; and the 
people gradually discovered that the preference given 
to Nicomedia and Milan was not to be ascribed to 
the particular inclination of Diocletian, but to the 



SENTENCES. 207 

permanent form of government which he had insti- 
tuted. It was in vain that, a few months after his 
abdication, his successors dedicated, under his name, 
those magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the 
ground, as well as the materials, for so many churches 
and convents. The tranquillity of these elegant re- 
cesses of ease and luxury was disturbed by the impa- 
tient murmurs of the Eomans ; and a report was 
insensibly circulated that the sums expended in 
erecting those buildings would soon be required at 
their hands. About that time, the avarice of Gale- 
rius, or perhaps the exigences of the state, had induced 
him to make a very strict and rigorous inquisition into 
the property of his subjects, for the purpose of a ge- 
neral taxation, both on their lands and on their persons. 
A very minute survey appears to have been taken 
of their real estates ; and whenever there was the 
slightest suspicion of concealment, torture w r as very 
freely employed to obtain a sincere declaration of 
their personal wealth. The privileges which had 
exalted Italy above the rank of the provinces were 
no longer regarded ; and the officers of the revenue 
already began to number the Eoman people, and to 
settle the proportion of the new taxes. Even when 
the spirit of freedom had been utterly extinguished, 
the tamest subjects have sometimes ventured to resist 
an unprecedented invasion of their property ; but on 
this occasion the injury was aggravated by the insult, 
and the sense of private interest was quickened by 
that of national honour." 

In this passage the sentences are all of more than 
ordinary length. Several of them are periods, and 
the others, though loose sentences, are more than 



208 ENGLISH STYLE. 

usually clothed with circumstances. The whole style 
is lofty and dignified, and is admirably adapted to the 
importance of the subject. 

" The women, in their turn, learned to be more vain, 
more gay, and more alluring. They grew studious to 
please and to conquer. They lost somewhat of the 
intrepidity and fierceness which before were charac- 
teristic of them. They were to affect a delicacy and 
a weakness. Their education was to be an object of 
greater attention and care. A finer sense of beauty 
was to arise. They were to abandon all employments 
which hurt the shape and deform the body. They 
were to exert a fancy in dress and ornament. They 
were to be more secluded from observation. A greater 
play w r as to be given to sentiment and anticipation. 
Greater reserve was to accompany the commerce of 
the sexes. Modesty was to take the alarm sooner. 
Gallantry, in all its fashions, and in all its charms, was 
to unfold itself." 

This way of writing is better suited to gay and 
sprightly subjects. It moves rapidly, and has more 
vivacity of expression than one in which the period 
prevails. But, as before said, that style is the best, 
in this respect, in which both forms are judiciously 
mixed together. 

We shall now proceed to consider, in detail, the 
qualities essential to a perfect sentence. These are 
unity, strength, and harmony. 

UNITY IN SENTENCES. 

It has been laid down as a principle, that, in every 
performance of art, the mind should be able to perceive 
the relation between the whole thing, taken as one 



SENTENCES. 209 

and the various parts of which it is composed ; and 
that without this relation the work is deficient in 
unity. We see a want of unity in the case of those 
mythological or imaginary beings frequently repre- 
sented by painters ; such as centaurs, satyrs, mer- 
maids, angels, &c. There is no natural connection 
between the body of a horse and the head of a man ; 
and therefore a painting of a centaur shocks both the 
sense and taste of the spectator. This principle of 
unity is applicable to composition, which is governed 
by the same laws as any other art ; and in single sen- 
tences, which are but parts of a composition, we 
naturally expect to find it. 

1. Every sentence should consist of one leading pro- 
position, together with, when expedient, its attendant 
propositions or circumstances. But incongruous ideas 
should never be pressed together into one sentence. 
Things which have no connection in nature should 
not be put together in art ; and thoughts that are 
different from each other should be expressed in 
different sentences. Some examples of violations of 
this rule here follow : — 

"In this uneasy state, both of private and public 
life, Cicero was oppressed by a new and cruel affliction, 
the death of his beloved Tullia, which happened soon 
after her divorce from Dolabella, whose manners and 
humours were entirely disagreeable to her." 

If the author had closed his sentence with the word 
1 Dolabella,' no defect of unity would have appeared. 
The main proposition is concerning Cicero's affliction 
at his daughter's death, and the time at which this 
took place is naturally enough added to it. But the 
effect is spoiled by the allusion to Dolabella's character 

p 



210 ENGLISH STYLE. 

which, had the author thought proper, might have 
made a separate sentence. 

The following sentences are open to the same sort 
of exception : — 

" He (Archbishop Tillotson) was exceedingly be- 
loved both by King William and Queen Mary, who 
nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to suc- 
ceed him." 

€i After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, 
where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received 
me with the greatest kindness." 

'•' Their march was through an uncultivated country, 
whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no 
other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh 
was rank and unsavoury, by reason of their continual 
feeding upon sea-fish." 

" He is supposed to have fallen, by his father's 
death, into the hands of his uncle, a vintner, near 
Charing Cross, who sent him for some time to Dr. 
Busby, at Westminster; but, not intending to give 
him any education beyond that of the school, took 
him, when he was well advanced in literature, to his 
own house, where the Earl of Dorset, celebrated for 
patronage of genius, found him by chance, as Burnet 
relates, reading Horace, and was so well pleased with 
his proficiency, that he undertook the care and cost 
of his education." 

This one sentence conducts us through a consi- 
derable portion of the life of the poet Prior. We are 
informed of — 1. The loss of his father. 2. His adop- 
tion by his uncle. 3. His being sent to Westminster 
School. 4. His progress in learning. 5. His leaving 
school. 6. His introduction to the Earl of Dorset. 



SENTENCES. 211 

7. His reading Horace; and 8. His being main- 
tained at the university by the Earl of Dorset. 

" To this succeeded that licentiousness which en- 
tered with the Restoration ; and from infecting our 
religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language ; 
which last was not like to be much improved by those 
who, at that time, made up the Court of King Charles 
II. : either such who had followed him in his banish- 
ment, or who had been altogether conversant in the 
dialect of those fanatic times ; or young men who 
had been educated in the same company ; so that the 
Court, which used to be the standard of propriety 
and correctness of speech, was then, and I think hath 
ever since continued, the worst school in England for 
that accomplishment; and so will remain till better 
care be taken in the education of our young nobility, 
that they may set out into the world with some 
foundation of literature, in order to qualify them for 
patterns of politeness." 

It is impossible for any one to digest so many facts, 
observations, and reasonings as are here presented to 
the mind in one sentence. 

The subjoined sentence is extracted from a work 
published in London this year (1857) : — 

" Unfortunately, coming into the possession of the 
estate, my father must turn farmer, and, like him I 
have before compared him to, and I have often thought, 
since reading the works of Cobbett, that there was a 
similarity in their thoughts on many subjects, he 
soon began to farm at a fearful loss (for to be a gain- 
ful farmer, so farmers hold, or rather they did then, a 
man should properly be trained to it from his youth) ; 
he was forced to trust to others to do what he should 

P 2 



212 ENGLISH STYLE. 

himself have done, and being still occupied in his 
professional pursuits at Norwich, his visits to the hall 
and to the estate were but occasional, and the eye of 
the master was but too often absent. His family, 
however, resided there, consisting of his wife and 
four children — Charles, Henry, Harriet, and Alfred 
— and there his affections were centred, so that it 
cannot be wondered at that, with a divided duty, and 
the course pursued, ere many years (but I am now 
forestalling) the estate soon became involved, and 
actually he was compelled to part with it at a loss, or 
rather with no gain ; for, at the time of the sale, 
which happened at a period during the long war, 
land fell of a sudden greatly in value, and the seller 
was glad to experience the truth of the old saying, — 

' When house and land and all are spent, 
Then learning is most excellent.' " 

This sentence needs no comment. 

2. Abstract and concrete ideas should never be 
forced together in the same grammatical government ; 
as : — 

" On every side, they rose in multitudes, armed with 
rustic weapons and with irresistible fury." 

But when the writer wishes to put things in a ridi- 
culous light, this is done with great effect ; as : — 

" He took his hat and leave." " He was delivered 
from the ditch and all his fears." " He is surely 
much happier in this noble condescension . • . . than 
if he kept himself aloof from his subjects, continu- 
ally wrapped up in his own importance and imperial 
fur," &c. 



SENTENCES. 213 



Parentheses. 



In speaking of the general structure of sentences, 
we had occasion to remark that, as a rule, long paren- 
theses should be avoided. They interfere both with 
the unity and the beauty of a sentence. They keep 
the reader too long in suspense about the definite 
meaning, and break the flow and easy movement of 
the writing. These objections are felt to be so well 
founded, that a parenthetical style is now out of 
fashion, though occasionally affected by some of our 
most eminent living authors. The following extracts 
will serve to illustrate the disagreeable effect of 
parentheses : — 

" It was an ancient tradition, that when the capital 
was founded by one of the Roman kings, the god 
Terminus (who presided over boundaries, and was 
represented, according to the fashion of that age, by 
a large stone,) alone, among all the inferior deities, 
refused to yield his place to Jupiter himself." 

" When this parliament sat down (for it deserves 
our particular observation that both houses were full 
of zeal for the present government, and of resentment 
against the late usurpations), there was but one party 
in parliament, and no other party could raise its head 
in the nation/' 

" Though Fame, who is always the herald of the 
great, has seldom deigned to transmit the exploits of 
the lower ranks to posterity (for it is commonly the 
fate of those whom fortune has placed in the vale of 
obscurity, to have their noble acts buried in oblivion), 
yet, in their verses, the minstrels have preserved many 
instances of domestic woe and felicity/' 

p 3 



214 ENGLISH STYLE. 

Such forms as, 'if I may be allowed the word,' 
' if I may hazard the remark,' ' if I may so ex- 
press myself/ &c, are open to the same objection as 
longer parentheses ; and even shorter insertions, such 
as a i in some sense/ ' as it were/ ' so to speak/ &c, 
should be introduced very sparingly, and not too 
frequently. The following sentence of Fielding's is 
exceptionable in this particular : — 

;i The most astounding instance of respect, so fre- 
quently paid to Nothing, is when it is paid (if I may 
so express myself) to something less than Nothing, — 
when the person who receives it is not only void of 
the qualities for which he is respected, but is in 
reality notoriously guilty of vices directly opposite to 
the virtues whose applause he receives. This, indeed, 
is the highest degree of Nothing, or (if I may be 
allowed the word), the Nothingest of all Nothings." 

3. When a sentence arrives at its natural close, 
nothing more should be added. We frequently find, 
when we come to what seems the proper conclusion 
of a sentence, that some extraneous remark, not quite 
to the purpose, or not in keeping with the main 
thought, is appended. Such an addition directly 
tends to spoil the effect by interfering with the com- 
pactness and unity of a period. For example, Sir 
"William Temple, speaking of Burnet and Fontenelle, 
says :— 

" The first could not end his learned treatise without 
a panegyric of modern learning and knowledge in 
comparison of the ancients; and the other falls so 
grossly into the censure of the old poetry, and prefer- 
ence of the new, that I could not read either of these 



SENTENCES. 215 

strains without indignation, which no quality among 
men is so apt to raise in me as sufficiency, — the worst 
composition out of the pride and ignorance of man- 
kind." 

The proper close of this sentence is at the word 
* indignation/ What is added is foreign to the pur- 
pose, and should be retrenched. 

" All the world acknowledgeth the JEneid to be the 
most perfect in its kind ; and, considering the disad- 
vantage of the language, and the severity of the Roman 
Muse, the poem is still more wonderful, since, without 
the liberty of the Grecian poets, the diction is so 
great and noble, so clear, so forcible and expressive, 
so chaste and pure, that even all the strength and 
compass of the Greek tongue, joined to Homer's fire, 
cannot give us stronger and clearer ideas than the 
great Virgil hath set before our eyes ; some few in- 
stances excepted, in which Homer, through the force 
of genius, hath excelled." 

This sentence would be considerably improved by 
inserting the awkward appendage, now at the end, after 
the conjunction 'that ;' thus : " . . . the diction is so 
chaste and pure, that, some few instances excepted," 
&c. ; . . . " even all the strength," &c. 

STRENGTH IN SENTENCES. 

A sentence is said to possess strength when its 
words and clauses are so arranged as to convey the 
author's meaning most impressively. To effect this, 
(1.) it should be cleared of all superfluous words. On 
this subject we have already made some observations 
under the head of " Tautology," and, therefore, one or 

r 4 



216 ENGLISH STYLE. 

two more examples of redundancy will be here suffi- 
cient. " This is so clear a proposition, that I rest the 
whole argument entirely upon it." (Either ' whole ' 
or ' entirely ' should be expunged.) " Saul and his 
companions journeying along their way to Damascus." 
(The words in italics are unnecessary.) 

Adjectives. 

2. One cause of this form of diffusiveness is the im- 
moderate use of adjectives. When j udiciously applied, 
adjectives have a powerful influence in heightening 
and animating the expression ; but when used unspa- 
ringly, they do but overburden the sentence, without 
adding to its meaning, and show an affectation and a 
pedantic straining after effect. Such relative and 
general terms as ' great/ ' good/ &c, ought not to be 
used too lavishly. A 'great' argument would be 
often better a 'forcible ' or 6 striking ' argument ; in a 
' great * degree, better in a ' high ' degree ; ' good 9 
measure may be 'full' measure, and a 'good 9 hand 
a ' skilful ' hand; &c. 

The same remark is applicable to adverbs. 'Very 9 
would be often better expressed by 'truly, or 
' really ; ' ' beautifully ' and ' nicely 9 by ' admirably ' 
and ' neatly/ These remarks do not exhaust the 
subject, but it is hoped they may prove useful in 
drawing the learners attention to this point. Adjec- 
tives and adverbs are the words which colour and give 
tone to language ; they paint the picture, and charac- 
terise expression. Hence, much of the vigour and 
power of writing depends upon their judicious appli- 
cation.. 



SENTENCES. 217 

Connectives. 

3. One of the most difficult points in constructing 
sentences is the management of connectives ; for both 
the grace and the strength of a period will, in a great 
measure, depend on the skill with which its clauses 
are joined together. Connective particles are used in 
a variety of ways, and no positive rules can be laid 
down for their application. In this matter we must 
study the practice of the greatest writers. We shall 
here show some cases in which the connection of the 
clauses has been ungracefully or awkwardly managed. 

When one term is governed by two different prepo- 
sitions it has always a harsh as well as an enfeebling 
effect ; as, " Socrates was invited to, and Euripides 
entertained at, his court." Here we have both an 
ellipsis and a suspension of the sense ; so that the 
effect is doubly disagreeable. 

The copulative conjunction 'and' is often unne- 
cessarily repeated, as in the following passage from 
one of Tillotson's sermons : — 

" And then those who are of an inferior condition, 
that they labour and be diligent in the work of an 
honest calling, for this is privately good and profitable 
unto men and to their families ; and to those who are 
above this necessity, and are in better capacity to 
maintain good works properly so called, works of piety, 
and charity, and justice ; that they be careful to pro- 
mote and advance them, according to their power and 
opportunity, because these things are publicly good 
and beneficial to mankind." 

In this sentence, the conjunction ' and ' is intro- 
duced eleven times. 



218 ENGLISH STYLE. 

The omission of relative particles, where it does not 
affect the perspicuity, is favourable to the strength of 
a sentence ; as, "The faith he professed, and of 
which he became an apostle, was not his invention." 

The omission of the relative here makes the sentence 
more compact, and also avoids an unnecessary repe- 
tition. Again : " The officers and soldiers were pre- 
pared for the part they were to act." "The sole 
evidence we can have of the veracity of an historian 
consists in such collateral documents as are palpable 
to all, and can admit of no falsification." 

Important Words. 

4. Important words should occupy a conspicuous 
place in a sentence. But the place to be assigned to 
them must depend chiefly on the construction. Though 
we should adopt the order most favourable to perspi- 
cuity, the most important words are in general placed 
at the beginning ; for example : — 

"Age, that lessens life, increases our desire of 
living." " Most of the trades, professions, and ways 
of living among mankind take their origin either from 
the love of pleasure or the fear of want." " The 
wise and virtuous man is at all times willing that his 
own private interest should be sacrificed to the public 
interest of his own particular society." 

On the other hand, it is sometimes advisable to re- 
serve the more emphatic terms for the end of a sen- 
tence, especially where the author wishes that such 
words should make a deep impression. In this case 
the sense is suspended, and the whole meaning is de- 
veloped at the close of the period ; for example : — 



SENTENCES. 219 

" Why their knowledge is more than ours, I know 
not what reason can be given but the uns earchable 
will of the Supreme Being." 

It is clear that if this order were inverted, the 
sentence w T ould lose much of its strength and effect. 
Again : — 

ei On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what 
principally strikes us is his wonderful invention." 

But in whatever part of the sentence we place the 
principal idea, it is always of the highest importance 
that it be clearly perceived. It should stand forth 
prominently ; and any circumstances of time, place, 
manner, &c, which may be necessary to add, should be 
so disposed as not to interfere with the leading thought 
of the period. This rule has been disregarded in the 
following sentence : — 

" And that it was not peculiar to the gift of lan- 
guage or tongues only, to be given at the moment of 
its exertion, but common likewise to all the rest, will 
be shown probably, on some other occasion, more at 
large, in a particular treatise, w r hich is already pre- 
pared by me, on that subject." 

Insignificant Words. 

5. We should avoid closing a sentence with com- 
paratively insignificant w r ords. Adverbs and prepo- 
sitions, though useful as qualifiers or connectives, 
ought not to be placed at the close of a period, where 
the mind would naturally dwell on their meaning, and 
would thus be distracted from the more significant 
parts of the sentence. Sometimes, however, to mark 
an emphasis, or to express a strong contrast, such a 
disposition of words is properly adopted, as in the case 



220 ENGLISH STYLE. 

of the following: — "In their prosperity, my friends 
shall never hear of me ; in their adversity, always? 
Here the antithesis is well managed, and the two 
adverbs, being emphatic, are so placed as to make a 
deeper impression. 

But in other instances we find such words unskil- 
fully placed ; as : " The other species of motion are 
incidentally blended also? " This agreement of man- 
kind is not confined to the taste solely" &c. 

Some writers on style are of opinion that we should 
avoid finishing a sentence with a preposition govern- 
ing a previous noun or pronoun. This rule will apply 
to the higher subjects of composition ; but the form is 
idiomatic and admissible in lighter writings, such as 
dialogues, letters, &c. Such verbs as ' to carry on, 9 ' to 
look into/ Ho escape from/ &c, are those to which the 
above remark will apply. There is no objection to the 
expressions, " The trade which the inhabitants carried 
on ;" "This is not what I object to" &c, at the close 
of a sentence in a familiar style. But it is better to 
avoid such endings when writing on more elevated 
or more serious subjects, and in this view the follow- 
ing sentences are open to criticism : — 

" I therefore thought it necessary to fix and deter- 
mine the notion of these two words, as I intend to make 
use of them in the thread of my following specula- 
tions, that the reader may conceive rightly what is 
the subject which I proceed upon? " There need (?) no 
more than to make such a registry only voluntary to 
avoid all the difficulties that can be raised, and which 
are not too captious, or too trivial, to take notice of? 
"It is absurd to think of judging either Ariosto or 
Spenser by precepts which they did not attend to? 



SENTENCES. 221 



ON ANTITHESIS. 



A period, when well constructed, has more strength 
than a loose sentence, because the energy is diffused 
throughout the latter ; whereas, in the former, it is 
concentrated into one point. Generally, a period 
should consist of but four members ; but it is not 
necessary to adhere strictly to this rule. Good sense 
and cultivated taste are the best guides to direct us to 
avoid both prolixity and intricacy. 

The kind of period that has most vivacity is where 
there is antithesis in the members, i. e., where the 
words stand in contrast to each other, the opposite 
members being similarly constructed. This form is 
not only the most effective, but also, in general, the 
most perspicuous ; for the relation of the parts to each 
other is here so strongly marked, that it is next to 
impossible to mistake the meaning ; for example : — 

" If you seek to make any one rich, study not to 
increase his stores, but to diminish his desires/' 

The following is a specimen of double antithesis : — 

"If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but 
justly, for abandoning the cause of liberty, which he 
would not, however, survive, what shall we say of 
those who embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, 
grow tired of it when they have much to hope, and 
give it up when they have nothing to fear? " 

Here follows another specimen of this figure, in 
which the author, in his anxiety to construct the 
clauses alike, has fallen into a strange error : — 

" Eloquence, that leads mankind by the ears, gives 
a nobler superiority than power, that every dunce may 



222 ENGLISH STYLE. 

use, or fraud, that every knave may employ, to lead 
them by the nose." 

On this antithetical period, a critic remarks, "Here 
the two intermediate clauses are contrasted, so are 
also the first and last. But there is this difference. 
In the intermediate members there is a justness in 
the thought as well as in the expression — an essential 
requisite in this figure. In the other two members, 
the antithesis is merely verbal, and is, therefore, 
at best, but a trifling play upon the words. We see 
the connexion which eloquence has with the ears, but 
it would puzzle CEdipus himself to discover the con- 
nexion which either power or fraud has with the nose. 
The author, to make out the contrast, is in this 
instance, obliged to betake himself to low and sense- 
less cant." 

Sometimes the antithesis is not found in the differ- 
ent clauses of the same sentence, but in consecutive 
sentences ; as, " He can bribe, but he cannot seduce." 
" He can buy, but he cannot gain/' " He can lie, but 
he cannot deceive." 

This figure may be found in loose sentences, as well 
as in periods ; as : — 

" They are designed to assert and vindicate the 
honour of the Revolution, of the principles established, 
of the means employed, and of the ends obtained by it. 
They are designed to explode our former distinctions, 
and to unite men of all denominations in the support 
of these principles, in the defence of these means, and 
in the pursuit of these ends." Here a varied oppo- 
sition in the words principles, means, and ends may 
be observed. 

In the next extract, we find an antithesis on the 



SENTENCES. 223 

words true ^nHjust running through three successive 
sentences : — " The anecdotes here related were true, 
and the reflections made upon them were just, many 
years ago. The former would not have been related, 
if he who related them had not known them to be 
true ; nor the latter have been made, if he who made 
them had not thought them just; and if they were 
true and just then, they must be true and just now, 
and always." 

In some cases, the words contrasted in the second 
clause are the same as those used in the first ; only, 
the construction and arrangement are inverted; as, 
" The old may inform the young, and the young may 
animate the old." 

Whatever may be said of the artificial construction 
of which the antithesis bears internal evidence, it is 
undoubtedly favourable both to strength and perspi- 
cuity ; and though this figure is not equally well 
adapted to every style, it is successfully used in many 
forms of composition. 

Antithesis is applied with great effect in delineating 
character. But an immoderate use of this figure is a 
serious fault in style. It imparts to it a studied and 
laboured effect, and gives us the idea that the writer 
pays more attention to his manner of expression than 
to the subject. This observation will apply to the 
following passages : — 

" Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better 
artist ; in the one we most admire the man, in the 
other, the work. Homer hurries us with a command- 
ing impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive 
majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion ; 
Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, 



224 ENGLISH STYLE. 

like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden 
overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a 
constant stream. And when we look upon their 
machines, Homer seems like his own Jupiter in his 
terrors, shaking Olympus, scattering the lightnings, 
and firing the heavens ; Virgil, like the same power 
in his benevolence, counselling with the gods, laying 
plans for empires, and ordering his whole creation." 

Though, according to some critics, this picture 
would have been more finished had some particular 
river been opposed to the Nile, no one can fail to 
perceive the consummate art displayed throughout the 
whole passage. But Pope has not here exemplified 
the principle that " The highest art is to conceal art." 
The chief objection to the passage is, that we have in 
it too much of the same figure ; the continual repe- 
tition of the same construction becomes at length 
wearisome, and its very artificiality makes it fail to 
produce the intended effect. 

Lastly, a resemblance in language and construc- 
tion should be maintained between the constructive 
members of an antithetical sentence. Errors in this 
particular are found, firstly, in words ; as : — 

" I have observed, of late, the style of some great 
ministers very much to exceed that of any other pro* 
ductions " (authors). " I cannot but fancy, however, 
that this imitation, which passes so currently with 
other judgments, must, at some time or other, have 
stuck a little with your lordship.' 9 (Say, passes so 
currently with others.) 

Secondly, it is a still greater fault to change the 
construction in such cases ; as : — 

" There may remain a suspicion that we overrate 



SENTENCES. 225 

the greatness of his (Shakspere's) genius, in the same 
manner as bodies appear more gigantic on account of 
their being disproportioned and misshapen." 

Thirdly, the corresponding parts should be of nearly 
the same length, and not as in the following passage : 
"As the performance of all other religious duties 
will not avail in the sight of God without charity ; so 
neither will the discharge of all other ministerial 
duties avail in the sight of men, without a faithful 
discharge of this principal duty" 

It will be for the learner to point out the errors of 
this description which may be found in the following 
sentence : — 

"Ministers are answerable for everything done to 
the prejudice of the constitution, in the same pro- 
portion as the preservation of the constitution in its 
purity and vigour, or the perverting and weakening- 
it, are of greater consequence to the nation than any 
other instances of good or bad government." 

Examples of antithetical Sentences. 

1. "If we must needs compare Cicero, therefore, 
with Cato, as some writers affect to do, it is certain 
that if Cato's virtue seem more splendid in theory, 
Cicero's will be found superior in practice ; the one 
was romantic, the other rational ; the one drawn from 
the refinements of schools, the other from nature and 
social life ; the one always unsuccessful, often hurt- 
ful, the other always beneficial, often salutary to the 
republic." 

2. "A cultivated taste, combined with a creative 
imagination, constitutes genius in the Fine Art-. 
Without taste, imagination could only produce a 

Q 



226 ENGLISH STYLE. 

random analysis and combination of our conceptions ; 
and without imagination, taste would be destitute of 
the faculty of invention." 

3. " He [Cassius] was brave, witty, learned ; yet 
passionate, fierce, and cruel : so that Brutus was the 
more amiable friend; he the more dangerous enemy." 

4. "It would appear that there are two opposite 
extremes into which men are apt to fall in preparing 
themselves for the duties of active life. The one 
arises from habits of abstraction and generalisation 
carried to an excess ; the other from a minute, an ex- 
clusive, and an unenlightened attention to the objects 
and events which happen to fall under their actual 
experience." 

5. " The perfection of political wisdom does not 
consist in an indiscriminate zeal against reforms ; but in 
a gradual and prudent accommodation of established 
institutions to the varying opinions, manners, and 
circumstances of mankind." 

HARMONY IN SENTENCES. 

It cannot be too frequently repeated that perspi- 
cuity is the essential quality of good writing, and that 
this should take precedence of every other consi- 
deration. But language may be regarded not only as 
an instrument of utility ; it is capable of embellish- 
ment, and may minister to our pleasures as well as 
to our necessities. Admitting it to be of the first im- 
portance that a communication, whether written or 
spoken, should be clearly understood, it is surely 
much more agreeable that the language be expressed 
in an elegant and harmonious, than in a harsh and 
ungraceful manner. This quality, then, harmony of 



SENTENCES. 227 

style, we now propose to discuss, — to lay down rules 
respecting this branch of the art, and to show what 
errors should be avoided by the student in endea- 
vouring to acquire an harmonious and graceful style 
of composition. 

The word " harmony," which is of Greek derivation, 
originally signified a power of adapting or fitting one 
thing to another. This was its primary, concrete 
sense. But it has now lost this meaning, and has 
only an abstract signification. In music, harmony is 
the effect produced by sounds that naturally fit to 
each other, or have a mutual sympathy. Socially 
speaking, it refers to the condition of those persons 
whose dispositions are adapted or suited to each 
other; and as applied to language it has a similar 
acceptation, viz., it is that quality of beauty, derived 
from combined sound and sense, which is naturally 
fitted to give pleasure to the mind. 

Harmony of language may be considered under 
three heads, — choice of words, arrangement of words, 
and proportion of parts. 

English has been often accused of harshness, and it 
certainly cannot be ranked among the most harmo- 
nious languages of Europe. But, if not the most 
beautiful in this respect, neither can it be said, on the 
other hand, that it is the most disagreeable ; for 
though inferior in harmony to Italian and Spanish, it 
ranks higher than Dutch, or any of the Scandinavian, 
or the Sclavonic languages. Since, however, even 
in the most melodious languages, some writers are 
known to be far more studious of elegance and beauty 
than others, it follows that in authors who write in 
the most rugged dialect, this difference will also 

Q 2 



228 



ENGLISH STYLE. 



appear. Whatever, then, may be said of the want 
of softness in the English language, it is plain, as 
some of our writers surpass others in harmony, that 
this is a quality to be cultivated ; and there is no good 
reason why any one gifted with a delicate ear, may 
not under the guidance of a judicious teacher, attain 
the power of writing in an easy and flowing style. 

First, as to choice of words. To those who have 
not a natural perception of the difference between soft 
and harsh sounds, any remarks on this subject would 
be utterly vain. Some may possibly be in this con- 
dition ; but the author is disposed to believe that such 
persons are exceptions to the rule, and that, in gene- 
ral, no instruction is required to prove that one word 
is softer or harsher than another. Concerning the 
causes of this difference, a few observations may, how- 
ever, be useful. 

Two points here require attention : — 1, the final 
consonant of a word, and 2, the sound of the vowels. 

The English alphabet may be arranged in the fol- 
lowing manner : — 




SENTENCES. 229 

In the above arrangement of the consonants, the 
upper line contains those which sound more softly, 
especially as finals. Those in the lower line are their 
corresponding hard consonants. Thus, apart from 
the sense, the word ' slab ' has a less harsh effect than 
' slap.' Again, ' bag ' is softer than ' back ;' ' played ' 
than 'plot;' ' stave' than ' staff;' and 'gaze' than 
' gas.' The same is also true, though perhaps not in 
the same degree, of these consonants, when used as 
initials. 

In English, the vowels have, generally, three sounds ; 
for example : — 





Open. 


Double. 




Close. 


a is sounded in 


'far,' 


in ' fate ' 


in 


< fat.' 


e 


' scene,' 


' here,' 




« met.' 


i 




' mine,' 




' sin.' 


o 


■ for,' 


' more,' 




' sot.' 


u 


1 rule,' 


4 tune,' 




'tun.' 



The liquids give a flowing softness to words, and 
those in which they abound are particularly beautiful; 
as, ' lonely,' ' noontide, 9 ' moving,' ' roaming.' 

As a general rule, words ending in soft consonants, 
and having open or double vowels, are preferable, in 
point of sound, to those with hard final consonants 
and close vowels. Accordingly, the dissyllables 
1 beauty,' * confine,' i abased,' will have more har- 
mony than ' proper/ 'defend,' ' detect;' and the 
trisyllables 'mountaineer,' 'usual,' 'violence,' are 
softer words than ' liberty,' ' elegance,' ' reference,' 
' adequate.' 

In selecting harmonious words, we should reject 
such as have close vowels, combined with clusters ot 

Q 3 



230 ENGLISH STYLE. 

consonants; as, < struggling,' * disrespect/ ' scratched,' 
' strengthened,' &c. These are among the most dis- 
agreeably sounding words of our language. 

The genius of the English language frequently 
throws back the accent to the first syllable of many 
long words; as ' peremptorily,' < legislature,' ' me- 
morable,' 'ambulatory/ &c. The necessity to pro- 
nounce so many short syllables after the accent, makes 
such words extremely unmusical, and very ineligible 
as regards beauty of sound. 

It cannot be expected, however, that style should 
be always equally harmonious. When it is neces- 
sary to express harsh ideas, our language should be 
correspondingly rugged ; and, though we need not be 
too elaborate in this matter, a cultivated taste and 
judgment will always direct us in some measure to 
suit the sound to the sense. There are several striking 
examples of this power of adapting sound to sense in 
Milton ; as — 

" So stretched out, huge in length, the arch-fiend lay." 

What a graphic picture of enormous size do these 
monosyllables convey ! The place of the accent on 
6 fiend/ and the open vowels falling on the unac- 
cented parts of the line, powerfully contribute to 
heighten the effect, and show the consummate art of 
the poet. Again: — 

" Far off from these, a slow and silent stream, 
Lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls 
Her watery labyrinth," &c. 

How smoothly and softly the lines run ! See the 
effect of the alliteration in the first line — slow, silent, 



SENTENCES. 231 

stream — and observe the singular accumulation of 
liquid letters throughout the passage. 

The following extract from one of Southey's poems 
is quite a curiosity in our literature, and powerfully 
proves the force and fertility of the English language. 
The whole poem contains more than one hundred 
and fifty adjectives, all applied to the falling of water 
down a cascade : — 

" How does the water come down at Lodore ? 

Here it comes sparkling, 

And there it lies darkling ; 

Rising and leaping, 

Sinking and creeping ; 

Swelling and flinging, 

Showering and springing, 

Eddying and whisking, 

Spouting and frisking, 

Twining and twisting, 

Around and around 

"With endless rebound. 

And falling and crawling and sprawling, 

And driving and riving and striving, 

And sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling, 

And sounding and bounding and rounding, 

And bubbling and troubling and doubling, 

Dividing and gliding and sliding, 

And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling, 

And clattering and battering and shattering ; 

And gleaming and steaming, and streaming and beaming. 

And rushing and flushing, and brushing and gushing, 

And flapping and rapping, and clapping and slapping, 

And curling and whirling, and purling and twirling, 

Retreating and beating, and meeting and sheeting, 

Delaying and straying, and playing and spraying, 

Advancing and prancing, and glancing and dancing, 

Q 4 



232 ENGLISH STYLE. 

And so never ending, but always descending, 

Sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending 

All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar, 

And this way the water comes down at Lodore." 

One cause of the comparative harshness of the 
English language may be its monosyllabic character, 
especially in that part of it derived from Anglo- 
Saxon. This quality may occasionally produce strength, 
but it is certainly unfavourable to harmony. The 
constant recurrence of words of one syllable has not 
only a rugged, but a wearisome and monotonous effect ; 
and for this reason we should avoid using too many 
monosyllables together. Take the passage in the 
Church Catechism : " My duty towards God is to be- 
lieve in Him, to fear Him, and to love Him, with all my 
heart, with all my mind, with all my soul, and with 
all my strength ; to worship Him, to give Him thanks, 
to put my whole trust in Him, to call upon Him, to 
honour His holy Name and His Word, and to serve 
Him truly all the days of my life." 

Here, out of seventy words, sixty-three are mono- 
syllables. 

Take a passage from Shakspere's " Macbeth :" — 

" That is a step 
On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap, 
For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires, 
Let not light see my black and deep desires, 
The eye wink at the hand. Yet let that be 
Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see." 

In this passage, out of fifty-two words, we have 
but two dissyllables ; * o'erleap,' a compound Saxon 
word, and ' desires,' derived through French from 



SENTENCES. 233 

Latin. It may be also observed, by the way, that 
every word in this passage, with the exception of i de- 
sires,' is of Anglo-Saxon origin. A combination of 
monosyllables, when they are judiciously selected and 
arranged by the masterly hand of a Shakspere, may 
not produce so harsh an effect ; but, as a general rule, 
it is better to intersperse words of a different number 
of syllables in a sentence. This, at any rate, will 
give our style some variety, and will make it, if not 
actually musical, less open to objection on the score of 
harshness. 

Two consecutive sentences, or clauses in the same 
sentence, should not begin, nor end, with the same 
word ; as : — 

" Every nature, you perceive, is either too excellent 
to want it, or too base to be capable of it" 

" The general idea of good or bad fortune, therefore, 
creates some concern for the person who has met with 
it; but the general idea of provocation excites no sym- 
pathy with the anger of the man who has received it 
Nature, it seems, teaches us to be more averse to enter 
into this passion, and, till informed of its cause, to be 
disposed rather to take part against it? 

In this passage we have the pronoun it concluding 
members of sentences three times successively. It is 
surprising that this could be done by any writer of 
taste. 

669 T were to be wished, that those amongst us who 
either write or read with a view to employ their 
liberal leisure (for as to such as do either from views 
more sordid, we leave them, like slaves, to their des- 
tined drudgery) ; 't ivere to be wished, I say, that the 
liberal (if they have a relish for letters) would inspect 



234 ENGLISH STYLE. 

the finished models of Grecian literature ; that they 
would not waste those hours, which they cannot recall, 
upon the meaner productions of the French and 
English press ; upon that fungous growth of novels 
and pamphlets, where, His to be feared, they rarely 
find any rational pleasure, and, more rarely still, any 
solid enjoyment." 

What with repetition of forms, and parentheses, 
this sentence could not well have been made more 
unmusical. 

There should be no rhymes in consecutive clauses, 
or members of a sentence : — 

" It is quite proper that a character should be per- 
vaded by a spirit of humility ; but this feeling should 
never be allowed to degenerate into servility" 

" On this occasion the question gave rise to much 
agitation, and soon after absorbed every other consi- 
deration" 

These clauses ending in words of a similar sound, 
give a disagreeable jangle to the whole sentence. In 
rhyming verse, the case is, of course, different ; but 
in prose composition, every form of echo should be 
carefully avoided. 

Alliteration, or the practice of making several words 
in succession begin with the same letter, was the 
principle on which the Anglo-Saxon poets constructed 
their verses. Langland, who immediately preceded 
Chaucer, begins his poem of "Piers Plowman," — 

" In a summer season, when soft was the sun, 
I sAoop me into sArouds, as I a s^eep were," &c., 

but this practice, though still partially retained in 
our later poetry, should never be allowed a place in 



SENTENCES. 235 

prose composition. Here it becomes a mere puerility, 
destroying the variety which is so necessary to 
harmony, and calling off our attention from the sense 
to the mere sound of the language. 

Some writers, however, have, perhaps inadvertently, 
adopted this alliterative form ; Alison makes Napoleon 
say of Sir Sydney Smith : " That m&n made me miss 
my destiny." 

ARRANGEMENT, 

The beauty of a piece of writing depends, in a great 
measure, on the arrangement of its words and clauses. 
It should be so managed, that the words flow naturally 
and gracefully, with as few interruptions as possible 
to its onward course. For this reason, insertions in 
wrong places, and repeated parentheses, should be 
carefully avoided. Parenthetical clauses which qua- 
lify the sense of a proposition are often necessary ; 
but they should be so placed as not to interrupt the 
flow of the language. A parenthetical style is abrupt 
and ungraceful ; it keeps the reader perpetually in 
suspense, and when he thinks he has arrived at the 
conclusion of a sentence, he meets with new and un- 
expected qualifying expressions which continually 
interfere with the meaning, and thus considerably 
lessen the pleasure he would otherwise derive from 
its perusal. The following quotation from one of 
Tillotson's sermons is strikingly faulty in point of 
arrangement, and the whole passage is harsh and 
unmusical : — 

"One might be apt to think, at first view, that this 
parable was overdone, and wanted something of a, 



26b ENGLISH STYLE. 

true decorum ; it being hardly credible, that a man, 
after he had been so mercifully dealt withal, as, upon 
his humble request, to have so huge a debt so freely 
forgiven, should, whilst the memory of so much mercy 
was fresh upon him, even in the very next moment, 
handle his fellow-servant, who had made the same 
humble request to him which he had done to his lord, 
with so much roughness and cruelty, for so inconsider- 
able a sum." 

With regard to sound, the part of a sentence or 
period requiring the most attention is its cadence. 
As in a phrase of music, the last few notes played or 
sung leave the most pleasing effect ; so, in a sentence, 
the last few words, when well selected and arranged, 
produce the most agreeable impression. It has been 
before remarked, that words having open vowels and 
soft final consonants are generally the most melodious ; 
and this quality particularly adapts them for cadences. 
Words of three or of four syllables are more eligible 
for this purpose ; and nouns or verbs should be used 
rather than adjectives or pronouns. It has been pro- 
nounced by a high authority, that a word of four syl- 
lables, accented on the first and third, such as 
* ob'serva'tion,' ' circumstantial/ ' understanding,' 
&c, is the most musical we can adopt for the close of a 
period. One of three syllables, with an open vowel, 
and the accent on the second, will also make a very 
pleasing cadence ; such as 'enjoy'inent,' 6 contrivance,' 
'proportion,' &c. It must be remembered that these 
are merely suggestions ; for it would, of course, be 
impossible to make every sentence end in such words. 
The object is simply to draw the learner's attention to 



SENTENCES. 237 

such forms of language as are most harmonious, and 
to recommend him to use them whenever circum- 
stances will allow of their adoption. 

What has been observed of the cadence is also appli- 
cable, though not in the same degree, to the endings 
of the other members of sentences. Here, adjectives 
and pronouns may be more frequently used, attention 
being directed to the selection of those which have an 
agreeable sound. 

Lastly, the cadence of a period should never be el- 
liptical : when the reader is obliged mentally to supply 
the words omitted in a cadence, the result is always 
unsatisfactory, both as to sound and sense. 

But we should steadfastly bear in mind that har- 
mony in composition must never appear the effect 
of labour ; and that the gravest offence against the 
art of writing is to allow the musical tone of a cadence 
to interfere with the sense or strength of the expres- 
sion. 

PROPORTION. 

The principle of proportion, on which some remarks 
were made, under the head of " Unity in Sentences/' 
is indispensable to harmony. It consists in the ar- 
rangement of the parts of a composition in such a way 
that they exhibit a just relation to the whole piece of 
writing. There is something disagreeable to our na- 
ture in seeing the parts of any object out of proportion. 
A sense of beauty is always conveyed by the contem- 
plation of an object whose parts are in a proper rela- 
tion to the whole thing and to each other. We may not 
be always sensible of the cause of these feelings ; but 



238 ENGLISH STYLE. 

the truth is, that our pleasure or pain in beholding any- 
thing is produced, in a great measure, by the propor- 
tion or the disproportion of its parts. Now, of this prin- 
ciple we must not only be cognisant, we must put it into 
practice in writing. Therefore, in constructing sen- 
tences, we should be careful not to make a very wide dif- 
ference in the length of their members. All the clauses 
should approach each other in length. A long intro- 
duction, followed by a proposition expressed in but 
few words, would be criticised as written in very bad 
taste ; and a like unfavourable opinion would probably 
be passed on one in which a leading proposition begins 
and all the rest of the sentence consists of an accumu- 
lation of circumstances. In either of these cases, the 
sentence would be out of proportion. 

The same principle is applicable to consecutive sen- 
tences. A very long, followed by a very short sen- 
tence, would be open to objection on similar grounds. 
The sentences cannot, of course, be all equally long ; 
this, for many reasons, is not desirable ; but the 
rhythm of the periods should be varied, and the 
clauses should be pretty nearly, though not quite, of 
the same length. 

We should never commence a piece of writing with 
a very long sentence, as this will often have a dis- 
couraging effect on the reader. It is better to be- 
gin by stating the case closely and concisely, in a few 
short sentences ; and in the after part of the compo- 
sition a greater variety in their length may be intro- 
duced. 

Lastly, this principle of proportion should be ob- 
served throughout a whole composition, whether 
theme, essay, fable, or letter. To write a long in- 



SENTENCES. 239 

troduction, and say but little concerning the subject 
itself, will be as disagreeable as a piece of writing to 
which either the introduction or the conclusion is 
wanting. 

The attentive reader must have perceived that all the 
rules here laid down are rather cautions against the com- 
mission of faults than instructions how to proceed in 
composing. These remarks, it is hoped, may guard the 
young writer against errors into which he is likely to 
fall ; but he must not expect that they will of them- 
selves produce excellence or beauty of style. Nothing 
but continual and careful practice will insure his pro- 
ficiency in this study. Let him write, but continually 
and carefully ; for careless or inattentive writing, 
instead of improving him, will, no doubt, have a di- 
rectly contrary effect. And he should not only write; 
it is recommended that he occasionally select an ex- 
tract from some eminent author, for the purpose of 
criticism. The heads under which the general subjects 
of construction and style have been here treated, will 
suggest points for his consideration ; and thus, by 
studying the best writers for the sake of their style, 
as well as their subject, he will insensibly improve 
both his taste and judgment ; he will become a better 
critic of general literature, and, at the same time, 
insure improvement in his own compositions. 



240 ENGLISH STYLE. 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PART VI. 

1. What is a sentence ? 

2. How are sentences here classified ? 

3. What is a simple sentence ? 

4. Write a simple sentence. 

5. Show how there may be degrees of simplicity in sentences. 

6. What is the usual order of a simple sentence ? 

7. In what cases is this order inverted ? Give examples. 

8. What is meant by the figure " Asyndeton ? " 

9. What is its effect ? 

10. What is the figure "Polysyndeton," and in what cases is 

it applicable ? 

11. What is a complex sentence ? 

12. What division is made of complex sentences ? 

1 3. What is a period ? 

14. What is the proper test of a period ? 

15. What is a loose sentence? 

16. What general difference of character is found between 

the period and the loose sentence ? 

17. In what cases are the period and the loose sentence re- 

spectively applicable ? 

18. What qualities are essential to a perfect sentence ? 

19. What is meant by unity in sentences ? 

20. How may a sentence be deficient in unity ? 

21. What effect on sentences have long or frequent paren- 

theses ? 

22. In what other ways may the unity of a sentence be inter- 

fered with ? 

23. What is meant by strength in sentences ? 

24. What effect has the immoderate or injudicious use of 

adjectives on sentences ? 

25. What parts of speech present the greatest difficulty, as to 

strength, in the construction of sentences ? 

26. In what part of a sentence should the most important words 

be placed ? 

27. What may be said of a sentence in this respect ? 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 241 

28. Which has generally more strength, a period or a loose 

sentence ? 

29. What is meant by " Antithesis ?" 

30. On what grounds is the use of this figure to be recom- 

mended ? 

31. In what cases is it especially effective ? 

32. Into what errors may we fall in applying this figure ? 



33. What is meant by harmony in sentences ? 

34. Give the original meaning of the word " Harmony." 

35. What character does the English language bear with re- 

spect to harmony ? 

36. What division may be made of this subject ? 

37. Which are the softer, and which the harder final consonants 

in English ? 

38. What differences may be found in the sounds of the same 

vowel ? 

39. What may be said of the liquid letters, in respect of har- 

mony ? 

40. What effect on harmony has the place of the accent ? 

41. Why are monosyllables to be avoided at the close of a 

period ? 

42. What may be said with respect to rhyming clauses and 

alliteration ? 

43. What forms of words are recommended for agreeable 

cadences ? 

44. What is meant by harmony of proportion ? 

45. How does this principle apply to language ? 



242 



PART VII. 

ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 



ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

There is in man's nature a principle which strongly 
urges him to believe that inanimate objects and ab- 
stract qualities are endowed with passion and power, 
and that they can think, feel, and act like human 
beings. Certain minds, by reason of their temperament, 
have a stronger tendency to this belief than others ; 
but all possess it in some degree. It may be observed 
almost from the cradle, and few men are wholly 
exempt from its influence through life. When a child 
talks to her doll, or beats the table against which she 
has struck herself, this poetical nature is exhibited. 
The boy, who loves to range alone through woods and 
rocks, feels this principle still more strongly within 
him ; and the man, though every year may tend to 
unpoetise him, and make him more philosophical, can 
never entirely cast it off. 

The expression of this feeling is, in truth, poetry ; 
and every form of what is called figurative language 
has its origin in this universal belief. It is worthy of 
notice that, as the poetical principle is seen to exist 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 243 

from the very infancy of the child, so it is known to 
have been most intense and abundant in the earliest 
ages of the world. The saying that " Man begins by 
being a poet, and ends by becoming a philosopher," 
is as true of society collectively as of its mem- 
bers individually ; and though figurative language is 
not now so common as in ancient times, it still exer- 
cises a much more powerful influence on thought 
than many may imagine. Its proper domain is, of 
course, poetry ; but poetical figures are also used with 
great effect in prose language* where they assist in 
giving clearness, as well as beauty and vivacity, to 
expression. 

, In the first place, such language, when well chosen, 
imparts perspicuity, and makes a deeper impression. 
Take the following sentence: " When we dip too deeply 
into pleasure, we always stir a sediment that renders 
it impure and noxious." The thought is here expressed 
by a figure of speech. Now, if this sentence were 
stated in ordinary language, — " When we indulge too 
freely in pleasure, we are sure to receive injury from 
the excess," — the language, though intelligible, would 
certainly be not so impressive. A child will see the 
relation between cause and effect as expressed in the 
former sentence. The language is picturesque, and 
the commonest understanding will more readily per- 
ceive truth in this form ; whereas, in the latter, the 
expression is less lively, and requires more considera- 
tion to comprehend it fully. 

Again, figures give elevation and dignity to style. 
In truth, whenever a writer wishes to impart loftiness 
to the expression, he always uses figure. In all im- 
passioned appeals, descriptions of the sublime or 

R 2 



244? ENGLISH STYLE. 

beautiful, and in expressions of the nobler passions, he 
must have recourse to these forms of language to give 
an adequate representation of his inner thoughts. 

The language even of our common and every-day 
conversation abounds in figure : here, single words 
are often used figuratively, as when we speak of a 
country * flourishing] or of any one ' melting ' into 
tears ; of his 'hard ' heart, or of his being ' inflamed ■ 
with rage; of his 'acute* judgment, &c. All these 
are common terms, and, indeed, the best we could adopt 
in such cases, and yet they are all figurative. 

This sort of language is divided into two classes ; 
figures of words, and figures of thought. The former 
are generally called ' tropes, ' from a Greek word 
signifying ' to turn/ because, in these cases, the word 
is turned from its original meaning, and used in a new 
sense. Thus : " To the upright there ariseth light in 
darkness. 99 The figure here consists in the words 
' light * and ' darkness ' being used, respectively, for 
' comfort' and ' adversity/ In the other class, the 
words are used in their proper and literal meaning, but 
the figure consists in the turn of thought. All forms 
of comparison will belong to this class, as they imply 
a likeness in the things, and not in the symbols by 
which they are represented ; as, " Why did I not pass 
away in secret, like the flower of the rock that lifts its 
fair head unseen, and strews its withered leaves on the 
blast ? n Here there are two conditions compared, 
but the words are all used in their original and literal 
sense. 

It may be said, perhaps, that this distinction has no 
practical use, and is not always very clear. But with- 
out insisting on artificial distinctions, surely, if there 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 245* 

is a difference, it should be clearly understood, and 
whenever a well-founded classification can be made, it 
should be adopted, if only on the general grounds of 
its giving system and method to our knowledge. 

PERSONIFICATION. 

We shall now proceed to offer some remarks on 
those figures of speech which are in most frequent use, 
and 1st, Personification. By this figure, life, action, 
and sensibility are bestowed on abstract ideas or inani- 
mate objects. There are two forms of this figure, — 1^ 
when an inanimate object or abstract quality is repre- 
sented in an active state ; and 2, when such an object 
is addressed as if possessing a capacity to listen to us 
arid be affected by our words. 

To the first of these classes belong such expressions 
as the following: — 

" Morality and religion forbid war." — " Justice de- 
mands a compensation." — "The storm raged through 
the whole night." — "The billows seem to fear the 
blast." — "The thunder hath spent his shafts." — 
" Thoughts that wander." — " The stars hide their 
diminished heads." — u The sun impressed his beams." 
— " Old ocean smiles." — " Rich trees wept gums," &c. 

The following are examples of a passive personifi- 
cation, L e., of inanimate objects addressed. This form 
is almost exclusively confined to poetry. 

" Thou sure and firm-set earth, 
Hear not my steps which way they walk, for fear 
Thy very stones prate of my whereabouts," &c. 

" Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come," &c. 
R 3 



246 ENGLISH STYLE. 

"Time, thou anticipat'st my dread exploits," &c. 

" Arm, arm, you heavens, against these perjur'd kings ! " 

"Death, death! — amiable, lovely death ! 
Arise from forth the couch of lasting night," &c. 

There are two "rules for the management of this 
figure. The first is, never to introduce it unless when 
the passage requires the expression of strong feeling ; 
and never to continue it when that feeling begins to 
subside. It is a figure which demands the greatest 
delicacy of handling, and should be used with judg- 
ment and moderation. We may add, that passive 
personification is better adapted to poetry than to a 
prose form of composition. 

The second rule is that no objects should be per- 
sonified but such as have in themselves a certain dig- 
nity. If extraordinary marks of respect for a person 
of low condition are ridiculous, so is the personification 
of an insignificant object. Blair observes, that "to 
address the corpse of a deceased friend is natural ; but 
to address the clothes he wore, introduces mean and 
degrading ideas." 

APOSTROPHE. 

The figure apostrophe very closely resembles a pas- 
sive personification. The only difference is, that in 
the former, the writer or poet addresses those who 
are either dead or absent ; whereas, in the latter, an 
address is made to an abstraction, or to some inani- 
mate object. Apostrophe does not require so violent 
an effort of the imagination as personification ; but it 
should never be introduced except when the speaker 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 247 

is supposed to be in some degree under the influence 
of passion. This figure, also, like personification, is 
not so frequently met with in prose composition, and 
is confined chiefly to poetry. 

Thus Thomson, in his poem of " Winter," apos- 
trophises the heroes and sages of antiquity : — 

" First of your kind, society divine, 
Still visit thus my nights, for you reserved, 
And mount my soaring soul to thoughts like yours." 

Shylock, in the " Merchant of Venice," exclaims, — 
" 0, father Abraham ! what these Christians are ! " 

Lady Constance, in " King John," apostrophises 
her son : — 

" O, lord ! my boy, my Arthur, my fair son ! 
My life, my joy, my food, my all the world ! 
My widow-comfort, and my sorrows' cure ! " 

Lady Macbeth, in her soliloquy, thus addresses her 
husband : — 

" Glamis thou art, and Cawdor ; and shalt be 
What thou art promised," &c. 

Sometimes an ideal character is addressed, as in 
Cowper's " Conversation :" — 

" O thwart me not, Sir Soph, at every turn, 
Nor carp at every flaw you may discern."^ 

So, again, Pope: — 

"Presumptuous man! the reason tvould'st thou find 
Why formed so weak, so little, and so blind ? " 

"Has God, thou fool! worked solely for thy good, 
Thy joy, thy pastime, thy attire, thy food ? " 
it 4 



248 ENGLISH STYLE. 



HYPERBOLE. 

The word " hyperbole" is derived from the Greek 
v-rrep (hyper), beyond, and (jaWtj (ballo), I cast ; and 
the figure consists in magnifying or diminishing an 
object beyond the reality. This figure is not only 
found in every form of writing, but is also made use 
of in common conversation, both by the ignorant and 
the learned. There is a strong tendency in the human 
mind not to rest satisfied with things in their real 
condition, but to describe them as having much more, 
or much less, of their respective qualities, than they 
really possess. We are suddenly surprised at the 
first view of whatever we either greatly admire or 
strongly contemn ; and hence we either paint it in too 
glowing colours, or speak of it in too violent terms of 
disparagement. 

On examining the hyperbolical expressions used in 
every-day conversation, it will be found that we have 
become too much accustomed to this sort of language 
for it to be considered as extravagant. It is only 
when there is something striking or unusual in the 
form of the hyperbole that it now attracts our atten- 
tion. When people say that they ' regret extremely ' 
such and such things, or that they are ' delighted ' to 
see their friends, or ' infinitely ' obliged to them, &c, 
such expressions are considered as nothing more than 
the ordinary forms of polite conversation. But when 
a dramatic poet, describing a lady's grief, says that 
she — 

" Poured forth her tears at such a lavish rate, 
That were the world on fire, they might have drowned 
The wrath of Heaven, and quenched the mighty ruin." 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 249 

there is a want of proportion between the cause and 
the effect that makes the figure degenerate into the 
ridiculous, and, instead of producing elevation of feel- 
ing, has a directly contrary result. 

In sanguine temperaments or impulsive natures, 
this tendency to exaggerate is very common. With 
such persons, everything is magnificent! splendid! 
sublime! ! awful!! ! They never condescend to use 
more ordinary or more moderate terms. They 
seem always on stilts, raised above common mor- 
tals. Sometimes they will carry this feeling so far 
as to make use — no doubt unconsciously — of con- 
tradictory terms, such as, ' immensely small,' 'exqui- 
sitely ugly/ ' sublime nonsense,' &c. And such ex- 
pressions are not confined to their spoken language, 
but find their way into whatever they may be called 
upon to write, be it a narrative, letter, or despatch. 
It is hardly necessary to state that this practice 
is strongly to be reproved. When we exhaust the 
superlatives of our language on trivial objects, or 
common occasions, what is to be done for terms fitted 
to express the really great or sublime ? Besides, 
even morally speaking, it has a pernicious effect ; for 
w T hen we once contract the habit of indulging in 
exaggerated language, no one knows how far it may 
carry us beyond the bounds of truth. 

There are two kinds of hyperbole; 1, that suggested 
by the strong passions of persons describing their 
own condition ; and 2, that used in describing the 
condition of others. Of these, the first is far prefer- 
able, because it is more natural. Violent passion 
may transport us beyond the bounds of reality in 
expressing our own state ; but one who describes 



250 ENGLISH STYLE. 

the feelings of others never can be agitated to such a 
degree as to use the same forms of extravagant ex- 
pression. For this reason, there is great beauty in 
the following passage of Milton : — 

" Me miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ! 
Which way I fly is Hell — - myself am Hell — 
And in the lowest deep, a lower deep, 
Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 
To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven." 

Here the poet represents Satan as tortured with 
despair, and no words seem too strong or too extrava- 
gant to express the violence of his feelings. 

But the passage before quoted, beginning — 

" Poured forth her tears at such a lavish rate," &c, 

is fairly open to objection. Whatever latitude of ex- 
pression might be allowed to one suffering from the 
distracting agitation of grief, the same liberty cannot 
be conceded to one who describes that condition. The 
language of passion is naturally more violent than the 
language of description. 

With regard to the application of this figure, there 
are three rules: — 

1. That the mind of the reader should be always 
prepared for it, and that, consequently, the figure is 
quite out of place at the beginning of a poem or 
work ; 2. That it should never be used in the de- 
scription of any common or familiar subject; and 
3. That it should be comprehended in as few words 
as possible. 



FIGUKATIVE LANGUAGE. 2ol 

It may be difficult to determine how far this figure 
may be properly carried ; but it is clear that the more 
words it contains, the less powerful will be the im- 
pression. The Spanish-Roman poet Lucan is immode- 
rately fond of hyperbole, and sometimes carries it to an 
unwarrantable extravagance. In addressing the Ro- 
man Emperor Nero, he beseeches him, when deified after 
death, not to dwell in those parts of the heavens near 
either of the poles, but to occupy a middle station, lest 
his weight should overthrow the whole system of the 
universe. 

ON COMPARISON. 

To the principle of comparison we are indebted for 
a considerable amount of our information ; for the 
worth of things can never be so well known and 
appreciated when they are regarded as isolated, and 
independent of each other. It is only by bringing 
things into juxtaposition that we can discover their 
real value, and can understand the resemblances and 
differences between them. 

Objects of different senses cannot often be pro- 
perly compared to each other. For this reason, it 
would be wrong to compare a song to a tree, or the 
scent of a rose to the softness of velvet. It is plain 
that we cannot see a sound or hear a taste, though 
we may compare similar sounds or similar tastes to 
each other. But it is to be observed, that though two 
ideas derived from different senses cannot be compared 
together in a literal signification, they frequently 
resemble each other in producing similar effects on 
the mind, and so far as they both contribute to raise 



252 ENGLISH STYLE. 

the same train of ideas, they may be legitimately 
compared to each other. Of a comparison depending 
on this principle, the following example may be 
quoted : — 

" The music of Carryl was, like the memory of joys 
that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." 

Here the comparison is founded on the similarity of 
the effect produced ; for no kind of music bears any 
immediate resemblance to a mental condition. The 
following are of the same description : — 

" Delightful is thy presence, Fingal ! it is like 
the sun of Cromla, when the hunter mourns his ab- 
sence for a season, and sees him between the clouds." 

" Often, like the evening sun, comes the memory of 
former times on my soul." 

This figure has a twofold object ; either to em- 
bellish language, or to assist in explaining the writer's 
views. The first class of comparisons is more pro- 
perly adapted to poetry ; but the second, which is 
more correctly called illustration, is not confined to 
any form of literature, or any subject of composition. 
All questions admit of explanation, be they poetical 
or scientific, and therefore, even in arguing on the 
most abstruse subjects of philosophy, the figure com- 
parison may be properly introduced. As examples 
of comparisons of embellishment, the following may 
be quoted. 

Goldsmith, in his description of the village preacher, 
says : — 

" As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, 
Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, 
Though rouud its breast the rolling clouds are spread, 
Eternal sunshine settles on its head." 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 253 

Homer, speaking of the eloquence of Ulysses : — 

" Soft as the fleeces of descending snows, 
The copious accents fall, with easy art ; 
Melting they fall, and sink into the heart ! * 

Pope's translation. 

Milton, describing the standard of the reprobate 
angels, says that it — 

" Shone like a meteor streaming to the wind." 

Shakspere, in the " Tempest : " — 

" And as the morning steals upon the night, 
Melting the darkness, so their rising senses 
Begin to chase the ignorant fumes that mantle 
Their clearer reason." 

Act v. Scene i. 

Again, in King John : — 

" Why holds thine eye that lamentable rheum, 
Like a proud river peering o'er his bounds ? " 

Act in. Scene i. 

The following are examples of comparisons of 
illustration, and their purpose is to instruct by ex- 
plaining : — 

" As wax would not be adequate to the purpose of 
signature, if it had not the power to retain as well as 
to receive the impression, the same holds of the soul 
with respect to sense and imagination. Sense is its 
receptive power ; imagination, its retentive. Had it 
sense without imagination, it would not be as wax, 
but as water, where, though all impressions be in- 
stantly made, yet, as soon as they are made, they are 
instantly lost." 

" The Tartuffes, however, who were present at the 



254 ENGLISH STYLE. 

exhibition, deeply stung by the sarcasms of the poet 
[Moliere], like the foul birds of night whose recesses 
have been suddenly invaded by a glare of light, raised 
a fearful cry against him." 

" Those persons who creep into the hearts of most 
people, who are chosen as the companions of their 
softer hours, and their reliefs from care and anxiety, 
are never persons of shining qualities or strong vir- 
tues. It is like the soft green of the soul on which 
we rest our eyes that are fatigued with beholding 
more glaring objects." 

There are certain rules to be borne in mind with 
respect to the use of this figure : — 

1. Comparisons should not be drawn between 
things that are obviously similar to each other. The 
pleasure derived from comparing lies in discovering 
a resemblance where we should not, at first, expect 
to find one. There is no art in showing a likeness 
which every one could discover for himself, and 
therefore such comparisons always fall short of their 
intended effect. 

2. We should not fall into the contrary extreme, 
and found comparisons on resemblances either too 
faint or too remote. What is not easily perceived 
can never be very satisfactory, and such comparisons 
will always be censured by every reader of correct 
taste. 

For this reason, if we cannot invent new compa- 
risons, we should not borrow them. To compare a 
hero to a lion, benevolence to the sun, or anger to a 
tempest, raises no emotion in the reader's mind. 
These figures have been used over and over again, till 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 255 

they are worn threadbare, and the adoption of them 
will but proclaim our own want of creative power. 

3. The object from which a comparison is drawn 
should never be one not generally known. The in- 
tention of the figure is to throw light on a subject, 
and this can never be done when the source of a 
comparison is obscure or abstruse. The figure, when 
founded on some philosophical discovery or technical 
term, understood only by a certain class of persons, 
fails in its effect when introduced in a work intended 
for the general public. 

4. Lastly. A comparison that consists in words 
only, and not in sense, is open to the strongest objec- 
tion. This sort of figure may suit the burlesque, or 
parody, but it should never be admitted into a 
serious composition. Of this form, the following are 
specimens : — 

" And now had Fhoebus in the lap 
Of Thetis taken out his nap, 
And, like a lobster boiled, the morn 
From black to red began to turn." 

Hudibras. 
The next is from the same poem : — 

" Great on the bench, great in the saddle, 
That could as well bind o'er as swaddle. 
Mighty he was at both of these, 
And styled of war as well as peace : 
So some rats of amphibious nature, 
Are either for the land or water" 

Many writers use the terms simile and comparison 
indiscriminately. This is an error. It is true that 
they are synonymous ; i. e., they agree in expressing 
likeness ; but they difFer in particulars. In a simile, 



256 ENGLISH STYLE. 

the objects compared are brought together, and the 
likeness between them is merely stated. In a compa- 
rison, not only is the likeness expressed, but various 
points of the resemblance are added ; so that the 
latter figure is more explanatory and more widely 
expressed than the former. The following is a com- 
parison : — 

" As bees 
In spring-time, when the sun with Taurus rides, 
Pour forth their populous youth about the hive 
In clusters : they among fresh dews and flowers 
Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed plank, 
The suburb of their straw-built citadel, 
New-rubbed with balm, expatiate, and confer 
Their state affairs. So thick the airy crowd 
Swarmed and were straitened." .... 

This is, properly, a comparison. The poet com- 
pares the fallen angels to bees ; and he carries out 
the figure into many details: — 

" Anon, out of the earth a fabric huge 
Rose like an exhalation." .... 

" His look 
Drew audience and attention still as night, 
Or summer s noontide air" .... 

" He ceased ! and Satan stayed not to reply, 
But, glad that now his sea should find a shore, 
With fresh alacrity, and force renewed, 
Springs upward, like a pyramid of fire, 
Into the wild expanse." 

In the above passages nothing more than the mere 
likeness is stated. It may be a question whether 
the simile is not a livelier figure than the compa- 
rison, as it leaves more to the imagination, and is 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 257 

mores uggestive. This distinction between the two 
figures, though not always maintained, should cer- 
tainly not be overlooked. 

ON METAPHOR. 

The next figure to be spoken of is the metaphor. 
The principle of comparing is the foundation com- 
mon to the metaphor and the simile. In both cases 
images are brought together, and their points of 
resemblance compared. But the difference is, that 
in the simile the likeness is expressed ; whereas in 
the metaphor it is only implied. For this reason, 
therefore, the metaphor is generally preferred, as being 
a more pleasing mode of illustration. The figure is 
bolder, and more lively, as the mind is here engaged 
in rapidly comparing the resemblances with the idea 
expressed ; whilst in a comparison the action of the 
mind is more languid, as we must first fix our attention 
on the principal object, and then on its corresponding 
image. 

The difference in form between these two figures 
is, that while in the latter, one object is likened to 
another, in the former, it is declared to be identical 
with another. Thus, when a writer says, " He 
fought like a lion," he uses a simile ; but if he should 
say, " He was a lion in combat," the figure is imme- 
diately a metaphor. 

This explanation applies strictly to the figure me- 
taphor properly so called ; but the word is often used 
in a looser and more extended sense, and refers to 
any form of figurative language. For this we can 
easily account. The metaphor is so much more fre- 



258 ENGLISH STYLE. 

quently required than any of the other forms of 
poetical diction, that the terms ' figurative' and ' me- 
taphorical ' have become convertible. 

There is a very close analogy between writing and 
painting, especially on certain subjects. Now, of all 
the figures of speech, none possesses so much graphic 
power as the metaphor. It throws a light on descrip- 
tion, gives individuality to objects, and makes abstract 
ideas palpable and visible by imparting to them co- 
lour, form, and substance. But to do this well, requires 
much judgment and delicacy of taste; for in a great 
variety of ways, the least inaccuracy of expression 
will spoil the whole imagery. The following rules 
may be of use to the learner in pointing out the errors 
into which he is likely to fall by the injudicious use 
of metaphorical language : — 

1. Metaphors should always be suited to the nature 
of the subject. If they are too many, or too lively, 
or too lofty, we seem to be forcing the subject into a 
dignity inconsistent with its nature. Neither, on the 
other hand, should they detract from its proper dig- 
nity. In epic or dramatic poetry, some metaphors are 
admissible which would be wholly out of place in 
prose. Some, again, are allowable in orations, which 
would be unsuited to historical or scientific subjects. 

It is unnatural to carry on a long process of rea- 
soning by metaphor. In argumentation, we look for 
perspicuity ; in description, for a certain embellish- 
ment ; and in narrative, for plain and simple lan- 
guage. One of the greatest difficulties in composition 
is to acquire a power of simplicity of expression. 
This gives an attractive grace to language, and im- 
parts a charm to it which can be derived from no 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 259 

other source. In the following extract from Smol- 
lett's " History of England/' we find an example of 
inflated metaphor : — 

" The bill underwent a great number of alterations 
and amendments, which were not effected without 
violent contest: at length, however, it was floated 
through both Houses of Parliament on the tide of a 
great majority, and steered into the safe harbour of 
royal approbation." 

"I am glad to hear there are no weightier objec- 
tions against that reverend body planted in this city." 

Swift, the writer of the above sentence, professedly 
rejected all embellishment of language ; and when- 
ever, in grave or serious subjects, he is betrayed into 
metaphor, the figure is generally inconsistent with 
the tone of thought naturally required in such cases. 
Here, besides being inappropriate, the figure is also 
incongruous — bodies are never planted. 

Here is another example : — 

" If Fiction and Poetry be brother and sister, — and 
we need scarcely contest the relationship, though we 
must allow the sister to possess the finer genius of 
the two, — it will be quite consistent with Fiction's 
more forward and mannish ways that he should be 
readier to answer the harsh question, Cui bono? — 
and of what use are you ? — than sweet Poesy herself, 
who, with all her dignity, is yet retiring. He could 
not attempt her defence, indeed, with any honour, 
and certainly could not conduct it with success, un- 
less he remembered her great claim of utility, as he 
asserts his own. Yet he has his individual character 
and course, of which it is permitted him to speak, 
though he must not, and will not, forget his sister's, 

S2 



260 ENGLISH STYLE. 

If she plants Paradise, he peoples it. If she adorns, 
and in adorning comforts, the wilderness with a 
flower, he conducts the traveller through the waste, 
is with him in his troubles, and guides him where the 
flowers grow. Sometimes, and in very famous cases, 
too, brother and sister w r ork jointly, as when Poetry 
explored Fairy Land. Fiction then was with her ; 
and we have not only the bowers, lustres, and atmo- 
spheres of love, but the people and the knights of the 
Fairy Queen, and the enchanters, too, that troubled 
her fairy domain. And Fiction, when about works 
specially his own, seldom attempts anything of im- 
portance without his sisters advice. Her breath is 
his inspiration, and she is as necessary to him as his 
intimate and inseparable companion — Fact." 

2. Metaphors should never be taken from low or 
mean objects. It is offensive to good taste to draw 
figures from vulgar or nauseous sources. This prac- 
tice is the more unpardonable, as there is an abun- 
dance of materials for metaphorical language. All 
nature is open to us " where to choose " for this pur- 
pose, and offers us an almost infinite variety of 
objects illustrative of moral or intellectual ideas. 
Writers, however, have frequently erred in this par- 
ticular. Tillotson, speaking of the Day of Judgment, 
describes the world as " cracking about the sinners' 
ears." " The pretensions to the supernatural," says 
Coleridge, "pilloried by Butler, sent to Bedlam by 
Swift, and, on their reappearance in public, gibbetted 
by Warburton, and anatomised by Bishop Lavington, 
one and all, have this for their essential character, 
that the spirit is made the universal object of sense 
or sensation." 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 261 

A poet describing the footmen's flambeaux after an 
opera, says : — 

" Now blazed a thousand flaming suns, and bade 
Grim Night retire" 

Dryden quotes a poet who imagines winter 

" To periwig with snow the bald-pate woods." 

3. Taste and judgment are required to select the 
most striking images, and show resemblances in points 
hitherto unobserved. Metaphors should never be 

forced; they should have the appearance of falling 
naturally into their places, and not of being constrained 
to do duty for some other and more appropriate word. 
Neither should they be drawn from recondite or ab- 
struse sources, as such figures will be regarded not 
only as pedantic, but as impertinent ; and, instead of 
adding grace or beauty to the idea they are intended 
to elucidate, they will only serve to involve it in 
obscurity. The most effective metaphors, therefore, 
are those derived from the common appearances or 
occurrences in art or nature, and the daily affairs of 
human life. 

Examples of forced Metaphors. 

" A stubborn and unconquerable flame 
Creeps in his veins, and drinks the streams of life." 

4. Care should be taken that the terms of a meta- 
phor be not incongruous. The expression, " to eradi- 
cate the seeds of vice," is an instance of this kind of 
false figure. To ' eradicate ' means to pull out by the 
roots, — an action which could not be performed on a 

6 3 



262 ENGLISH STYLE. 

seed. We may say, correctly, to eradicate a vice, or 
a habit, since we may, figuratively, look upon the one 
or the other as having taken root in our nature ; but 
since a seed, as such, has no root, the terms ' eradicate' 
and ' seed ' are incongruous, and cannot be used, with 
reference to each other, in the same figure. And here 
may be clearly seen the value of a knowledge of de- 
rivation. Those who are acquainted with etymology 
are not likely to bring together incongruous terms. 
Aware of the original signification of words, they at 
once perceive that certain terms are incompatible with 
each other, and thus more easily avoid the inelegance 
and incorrectness arising from ignorance of this branch 
of the study of language. 

The following are examples of incongruous or in- 
consistent metaphors : — 

" Instead of losing myself and readers in a wide 
field, I shall simply count the steps of the ladder that 
has conducted us to the existing platform, upon which 
it must be the pride and pleasure of every one to con- 
template the life around him." 

" Time's effacing fingers cannot erase these interests." 

Lord Ellesmere, in the " History of the two Sieges 
of Vienna," speaking of Sobieski, says, " He flung 
his powerful frame into the saddle, and his great soul 
into the cause? 

Robert Boyle, the celebrated chemist, was described 
as "the father of chemistry, and the brother of the 
Earl of Cork." 

One of Lord Castlereagh's speeches in Parliament 
has this passage : " And now, sir, I must embark on 
the feature on which this subject hinges? 

5. Metaphors taken from different objects should 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 263 

never be used in the same sentence. This error, an 
excess of the last-mentioned fault, is one of the 
grossest abuses of the figure. If it be wrong to use 
incompatible terms in a single figure, it is much more 
so to mix metaphors together. For example : — 

" Though, in their corrupt notions of divine worship, 
they are apt to multiply their gods, yet their earthly 
devotion is seldom paid to above one idol at a time, 
whose oar they pull with less murmuring and more 
skill than when they share the lading, or even hold 
the helm." 

Here the metaphor is ridiculously inconsistent. 
The demagogue is first an idol, and then a boat — two 
totally distinct ideas. There is no natural connection 
whatever between worshipping and rowing ; and " to 
pull the oar of an idol " is a palpable absurdity. 

" I bridle in my struggling Muse with pain 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain." 

Dr. Johnson, in his " Life of Addison," criticising 
these lines, says : " To bridle a goddess is no very deli- 
cate idea. But why must she be bridled ? — because she 
longs to launch — an act which was never hindered by 
a bridle; and whither would she launch? — into a 
nobler strain. In the first line she is a horse ; in the 
second, a boat ; and the care of the poet is to keep his 
horse or his boat from singing." 

ci Women were formed to temper mankind, not to 
set an edge upon their minds, and blow up in them 
those passions which are apt to rise of their own 
accord." 

There is no analogy between c setting an edge' and 
' blowing up.' 

s 4 



264 ENGLISH STYLE. 

Even when kept distinct from each other, it is not 
advisable to use different metaphors in the same 
period. The sudden change of scene distracts the 
attention, and the several images conveys but a faint 
impression to the mind. 

6. A sentence should never have metaphorical and 
■proper expressions so mixed up together, that one part 
of it be taken literally and the other figuratively . 

" When thus, as I may say, before the use of the 
loadstone or knowledge of the compass, I was sailing 
in a vast ocean, without other help than the pole-star 
of the ancients, and the rules of the French stage 
among moderns." 

The fault here lies in the figurative use of the 
word * pole-star, 5 joined to the literal meaning of the 
' rules of the French stage. ' 



ON FIGURES CONNECTED WITH THE METAPHOR. 

The peculiar boldness of the figure metaphor makes 
it at least as intimately connected with the style, as 
with the thoughts of a writer. For as it is not an 
explicit comparison, and the name of one thing is put 
forward for the name of another, quite different though 
resembling it in some quality, there is, consequently, an 
apparent or real impropriety, and some degree of 
obscurity, in the use of this figure. The same remark 
applies to certain tropes closely connected with the 
metaphor, viz., synecdoche, metonymy, antonomasia, 
and irony. These all imply the substitution of one 
thing for another, but in different relations. 

In synecdoche, the relation is between a part and 
the whole, or between the material and the thing 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 265 

made ; as when we say, He earns his bread (a part 
of his food) ; The canvas glows ; The marble speaks 
(the material for the thing made). 

In metonymy, the relation is between cause and 
effect (or vice versa) ; the container for the thing 
contained, or the sign for the thing signified ; as, Gray 
hairs should be respected (effect for cause) ; I am 
reading Macaulay (cause for effect) ; The country 
was distracted (for inhabitants) ; He assumed the 
crown (sign of power, for power). 

Antonomasia is where the individual is put for the 
species ; as, Every man is not a Solomon (for the 
species wise) ; Do you take me for a Crozsits ? (rich). 

In irony, the relation between the thing said and 
the thing meant is contrariety ; as when we speak of 
the ' sweet disposition * of one who is notoriously ill- 
tempered, or of ' beautiful weather ' when it is raining 
in torrents. This figure is most frequently used in 
satire. 

It should be observed that of two synonymous 
words, one may be often figuratively used in a case 
where it would be wholly unwarrantable to employ 
the other. Take the two words ' vein ' and c artery/ 
Now, we may say, metaphorically, < a vein of satire/ 
but we could not say ' an artery of satire.' Again, 
1 high ' and ' tall ' are synonymous ; but though we 
may speak of 'high aspirations/ we could not here 
substitute ' tall ' for ' high/ 

In all languages w T e meet with words which have 
lost their original concrete meaning, and are now used 
only in a secondary sense. Such are, in English, the 
words ' asperse,' e obviate/ ' eradicate ' &c. We may 
neither * obviate* a friend, nor ' asperse' him with mud, 



266 ENGLISH STYLE. 

nor ' eradicate ' one of the plants in his garden. This 
language, though intelligible to a linguist, would be 
condemned by every man of common sense as pedan- 
tic and affected. Such words, in whatever view they 
may be held by the etymologist, cannot now be con- 
sidered as metaphorical. They produce nothing of 
the effect of the metaphor ; but simply suggest to the 
reader's mind, without the intervention of any image, 
the ideas which the writer intends to convey. 

The figures synecdoche, metonymy, and antono- 
masia, may, in various instances, very materially con- 
tribute to vivacity of style : — 

1st. Where a species is represented by an indivi- 
dual ; as, u It is not every poet that can expect to find a 
Meccenas" Here, by antonomasia, a proper name is 
made to represent the whole class patron. In the 
same way, Judas is sometimes used for a traitor, 
Homer for a poet, &c. 

By one form of the synecdoche, the species is put 
for the genus ; as when an assassin is called a cut- 
throat; a fiction, a lie ; a thief, a cut-purse, &c. 

Another is where a verb is formed from a proper 
name, to express some act for which the person who 
held that name was notorious. Thus, Hamlet says he 
had seen some actors " out-herod Herod." On a 
similar principle was formed the verb ' to burke,' 
derived from a notorious murderer of that name. 
The verb ' to macadamize,' from McAdam, a cele- 
brated road-maker, belongs to the same class. This 
figure, how r ever, belongs rather to the burlesque, and 
is scarcely admissible in writings of a more serious 
cast. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 267 

2nd. "Where the writer wishes to draw attention to 
some particular part of the subject which is most in- 
teresting. This is similar to the last-explained case, 
where an individual stood for a species, and a species 
for a genus. Here, a part represents the whole ; the 
abstract suggests the concrete ; the passion, its object ; 
the instrument, its agent, &c. For example, when 
it is said, " All hands were called to the pumps," or 
u This manufacturer employs more than one hundred 
hands" &c, the part is used for the whole, as this 
particular part (the hand) is required in such cases. 
By a similar figure, we commonly say, " A fleet of 
twenty sail ;" " So many head of cattle," &c. 

In a similar way, the abstract may represent the 
concrete, or vice versa. We speak of an assemblage 
of "youth and beauty" meaning young and beautiful 
persons ; " Miss Prim," for one of precise manners ; 
" Master Impudence," &c. " Two heads are better 
than one." " No tongue, all eyes ! " 

So, again, the passion is put for the object. A 
mother will call her child her " love ; " a tyrannical 
ruler is called the " terror " of his subjects ; joy, hope, 
detestation, &c, are frequently used in the same way. 

Lastly, by a similar process, the instrument is 
frequently put for the agent. A skilful literary man 
is called a good pen; so many hundred horse (for 
horsemen) ; a thousand lances (for soldiers). 

A particular liveliness of expression is produced, 
when, in using figurative language, abstract ideas are 
represented by objects of sense. The imagination is 
more strongly affected by outward things than by 
abstractions. If, then, the writer be treating of 



268 ENGLISH STYLE. 

tilings conceivable, it will much contribute to enliven 
his style, that the figures he may think proper to 
introduce be drawn from the material world. 

There is a certain degree of vivacity in every 
metaphor, even where the literal and the figurative 
meaning of the word belong to the same class of objects. 
Thus, a blunder has been called an anomaly^ both 
words belonging to the class of abstraction. Again, 
the words step and measure are employed for each 
other metaphorically, and are both originally concrete 
terms. But there is a particular vivacity when 
sensible objects are used to represent abstract ideas ; 
there is here a picturesque effect which is not found 
in the other cases. When the poet speaks of a torrent 
of vice, for the influence of evil manners, the single 
word forms a lively picture in the mind, and is par- 
ticularly gratifying to the imagination. By the same 
kind of metaphor, light is used for knowledge ; a 
bridle for restraint,, &c. Burning zeal, inflamed with 
anger, a rooted prejudice, &c, may be traced to the 
same principle. 

Vivacity may also be produced when, in adopting 
figurative expressions, animate rather than inanimate 
objects are presented to view. The imagination has 
more sympathy with sentient creatures than with 
inert matter, and consequently, beings awaken in us 
more attention than things without life. This may 
probably be the reason why the term vivacity is ap- 
plied to such a style, as the word itself implies life, 
vigour, and energy. 

According to this principle, a literary work is fre- 
quently called the offspring of the brain ; and the 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 269 

early period of a nation's existence is termed its in- 
fancy ', or childhood, &c. 

But when sense, feeling, and affection are ascribed 
metaphorically to inanimate objects, the energy of the 
style is still more increased. Thomson, describing the 
effect of the sun on snow, says : — 

" Perhaps the vale 
Relents awhile to the reflected ray." 

The great beauty, as well as power, of this passage 
lies in the word relents, which makes the whole scene 
instinct with life and feeling. By the same form of 
metaphor, we commonly say, a happy life, a learned 
age, a melancholy disaster, &c. 

The same purpose may be answered by metonymy. 
1st. Where the inventor is put for the invention : for 
instance, Ceres for bread ; Bacchus for wine ; Mars 
for war ; Neptune for the sea, &c. This figure, 
however, though frequently adopted by the classical 
writers of antiquity, is seldom introduced by the 
moderns. 

Another class of metonymies is where animate are 
used for inanimate things, the concrete for the abstract ; 
as, the fool, for folly; the knave, for knavery; the phi- 
losopher, for philosophy, &c. ; as, "He durst not speak; 
but wisely kept the fool within." " Craterus loves the 
king (i. e., the kingly office); but Hsephestion loves 
Alexander." So Swift, " I hate the viceroy, love the 
man." " Brutus was attached to the man (Caesar), but 
detested the tyrant" (his tyranny). "There spoke all 
the father " (i, e., fatherly feeling), &c. Of the whole 
of this class of figures it may be said that as a meta- 
phor may be termed an allegory in epitome, so those 



270 ENGLISH STYLE. 

metaphors and metonymies which present us with 
animate for inanimate objects are personifications in 
miniature. 

ON ALLUSION. 

The figure of speech called Allusion is that by 
which some well-known fact in history, or the sayings 
or opinions of some eminent writer, are recalled to 
mind. It will, doubtless, require very extensive 
learning to understand all the allusions we may meet 
with in the course of our reading ; but the young 
student should never allow an obscure allusion to 
pass, without noting it down for inquiry. The fol- 
lowing are examples of this figure : — 

" When you see the people of this republic [Athens] 
banishing and murdering their best and ablest citizens, 
dissipating the public treasure with the most senseless 
extravagance, and spending their whole time as spec- 
tators or actors, in playing, fiddling, dancing, or 
singing, does it not, my Lord, strike your imagination 
with the image of a complex Nero ? " — Burke. 

The next example is from the same author. La- 
menting the public calamities, and inveighing against 
the violent spirit of innovation then prevalent, he 
says : — 

" Novelty is not the only source of zeal. Why 
should not a Maccabeus and his brethren arise to 
assert the honour of the ancient laws, and to defend 
the temple of their forefathers, with as ardent a spirit 
as can inspire any innovator to destroy the monuments 
of the piety and the glory of ancient ages ? " 

"The case of Tantalus, in the region of poetic 
punishment, was somewhat to be pitied, because the 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 271 

fruits that hung about him retired from his hand ; but 
what tenderness can be claimed by those who, though 
perhaps they suffer the pains of Tantalus, will never 
lift their hands for their own relief ?" — Johnson. 

" When a king asked Euclid, the mathematician, 
whether he could not explain his art to him in a more 
compendious manner, he was answered, that there 
was no royal road to geometry!" — Ibid. 

ON CLIMAX. 

Climax, or Amplification, as it is called by Quinti- 
lian, consists in arranging the circumstances of some 
description, object, or action, in such an order that 
they become more and more magnified as we proceed, 
till the idea is raised to the highest. The principle 
of this figure is similar to the one on which is built 
the rule for arranging arguments in a composition ; 
viz., that they should be placed so as to continually 
increase in power. For, as arguments thus arranged 
are likely to produce a stronger conviction of truth, 
so, a climax, when judiciously managed, gradually 
unfolds the image to the mind, and thus more effec- 
tually gratifies the imagination. For example: — 

" For eighteen months, without intermission, this 
destruction raged from the gates of Madras to the 
gates of Tanjore ; and so completely did these masters 
in their art, Hyder Ali and his ferocious son, absolve 
themselves of their impious vow, that, when the 
British armies traversed, as they did, the Carnatic 
for hundreds of miles in all directions, through the 
whole line of their march, they did not see one man, 
not one woman, not one child, not one four-footed 



272 ENGLISH STYLE. 

beast of any description whatever. One dead, uniform 
silence reigned over the whole region!" — Burke. 

" A man of polite imagination is let into a great 
many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of 
receiving. He can converse with a picture, and find 
an agreeable companion in a statue. He meets with 
a secret refreshment in a description, and often feels 
a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields and 
meadows, than another does in the possession. It 
gives him, indeed, a kind of property in everything 
he sees, and makes the most rude, uncultivated parts 
of nature administer to his pleasures ; so that he looks 
upon the whole world, as it were, in another light, 
and discovers in it a multitude of charms that conceal 
themselves from thegenerality of mankind." — Addison. 

In the whole range of English literature, there is, 
perhaps, none more strikingly illustrative of the figure 
climax than this passage. Many in reading it may pro- 
bably feel a secret pleasure in its beauty for which they 
cannot wholly account. The leading cause of this 
charm consists in the management of the climax. 
The writer having laid down his position, proceeds to 
illustrate it by reference, firstly, to single objects — a 
* picture' and a 'statue ; ' secondly, he goes on to ' fields ' 
and i meadows ; ' then the view is expanded to the 
' rude, uncultivated parts of nature ; ' and, lastly, the 
' whole world' is brought before the reader's imagi- 
nation. 

The following description, from Thomson's " Sea- 
sons," may also be quoted as a beautiful example of 
this figure : — 

" Tis listening fear, and dumb amazement all, 
When to the startled eye, the sudden glance 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 273 

Appears far south, eruptive through the cloud ; 
And, following slower, in explosion vast, 
The thunder raises his tremendous voice. 
At first, heard solemn o'er the verge of heaven, 
The tempest growls ; but, as it nearer comes, 
And rolls its awful burden on the wind, 
The lightnings flash a larger curve, and more 
The noise astounds ; till, overhead, a sheet 
Of livid flame discloses wide ; then shuts 
And opens wider ; shuts and opens still 
Expansive, wrapping ether in a blaze : 
Follows the loosened, aggravated roar, 
Enlarging, deepening, mingling ; peal on peal 
Crushed horrible, convulsing heaven and earth." 

Other examples of climax : — 

" Since concord was lost, friendship was lost ; fide- 
lity was lost ; liberty was lost;— -all was lost!" 

" The display of this day has reflected the highest 
honour on himself lustre upon letters, renown upon 
parliament, glory upon the country." 

"It is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because 
that is to excel many others ; it is pleasant to grow 
better, because that is to excel ourselves ; it is pleasant 
to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that is vic- 
tory ; it is pleasant to command our appetites and 
passions, and to keep them in due order within the 
bounds of reason and religion, because that is em- 
pire ! 

ANTI-CLIMAX. 

Bathos, or Anti-climax, is the converse of the last- 
named figure. Here, the expression, instead of growing- 
stronger as the poet proceeds, takes a contrary direc • 

T 



274 ENGLISH STYLE. 

tion, and continually descends. When used seriously, 
bathQs adds great force to description ; for example : — 

" What must the King do now ? Must he submit ? 
The King shall do it. Must he be deposed ? 
The King shall be contented. Must he lose 
The name of King ? o' God's name let it go. 
I'll give my jewels for a set of beads ; 
My gorgeous palace, for a hermitage ; 
My gay apparel, for an alms-man's gown ; 
My figured goblets, for a dish of wood ; 
My sceptre, for a palmer's walking- staff ; 
My subjects, for a pair of carved saints ; 
And my large kingdom for a little grave ; 
A little, little grave, an obscure grave." 

Shakspere, Richard II Act in. Scene iii. 



ON ALLEGORY. 

In the widest sense of the word, whenever one 
thing is said or expressed, and another signification 
is implied, the story is allegorical. A painting re- 
presenting the Hours (personified) harnessing the 
horses to the chariot of the Sun, would be an allegory; 
that is, the representation would signify something 
more than what was painted. Swift's " Tale of a 
Tub " is allegorical ; it is a satire on the sections of 
Christianity, disguised under the story of the adven- 
tures of three brothers. "The Pilgrim's Progress" 
is, perhaps, the longest allegory ever written ; it re- 
presents the trials and struggles of a Christian in his 
journey through life, embodied in the adventures of 
an individual personage. "Gulliver's Travels" is 
another celebrated allegory, in which political parties 
and intrigues are satirised. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 27o 

Fables and parables partake of the nature of this 
figure. They are short stories — not strictly true — 
but inculcating some moral principle or religious 
doctrine. 

The following extract from Aikin's " Miscellanies " 
is an example of the allegory : — 

"In that season of the year, when the serenity of 
the sky, the various fruits which cover the ground, 
the discoloured foliage of the leaves, and all the sweet 
but fading graces of inspiring autumn, open the mind 
to benevolence and dispose it for contemplation, I 
was wandering in a beautiful and romantic country, 
till curiosity began to give way to weariness ; and I 
sat me down on a fragment of a wall overgrown with 
moss, where the rustling of the falling leaves, the 
dashing of waters, and the hum of the distant city, 
soothed my mind into the most perfect tranquillity, 
and sleep insensibly stole upon me as I was indulging 
the agreeable reveries which the objects around me 
naturally inspired. 

" I immediately found myself in a vast extended 
plain, in the middle of which arose a mountain, higher 
than I had before any conception of. It was covered 
with a multitude of people, chiefly youths ; many of 
whom pressed forwards with the liveliest expressions 
of ardour in their countenance, though the way was 
in many places steep and difficult. I observed that 
those who had just begun to climb the hill thought 
themselves not far from the top ; but as they proceeded, 
new hills were continually rising to their view, and 
the summit of the highest they could before discern 
seemed but the foot of another, till the mountain 
at length appeared to lose itself in the clouds. As 1 

t 2 



276 ENGLISH STYLE. 

was gazing on these things with astonishment, my 
good genius suddenly appeared : 6 The mountain be- 
fore thee/ said he, ' is the Hill of Science. On the 
top is the temple of Truth, whose head is above the 
clouds, and a veil of pure light covers her face. Ob- 
serve the progress of her votaries ; be silent and 
attentive.' 

"I saw that the only approach to the mountain 
was by a gate, called the gate of languages. It was 
kept by a woman of a pensive and thoughtful appear- 
ance, whose lips were continually moving, as though 
she repeated something to herself. Her name was 
Memory. On entering this first enclosure, I was 
stunned with a confused murmur of jarring voices 
and dissonant sounds, which increased upon me to 
such a degree that I was utterly confounded, and 
could compare the noise to nothing but the confusion 
of tongues at Babel. 

"After contemplating these things, I turned my 
eyes towards the top of the mountain, where the air 
was always pure and exhilarating, the path shaded 
with laurels and other evergreens, and the effulgence 
which beamed from the face of the goddess seemed 
to shed a glory round her votaries. i Happy/ said I, 
* are they who are permitted to ascend the mountain ! ' 
— but while I was pronouncing this exclamation with 
uncommon ardour, I saw standing beside me a form of 
diviner features, and a more benign radiance. * Hap- 
pier,' said she, ' are those whom Virtue conducts to the 
mansions of content ! ' ' What ! ' said I, ' does Virtue, 
then, reside in the vale ? ' c I am found,' said she, 
6 in the vale, and I illuminate the mountain. I cheer 
the cottager at his toil, and inspire the sage at his 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 277 

meditation. I mingle in the crowd of cities, and bless 
the hermit in his cell. I have a temple in every heart 
that owns my influence ; and to him that wishes for 
me, I am already present. Science may raise you to 
eminence ; but I, alone, can guide you to felicity ! ' 
While the goddess was thus speaking, I stretched out 
my arms towards her with a vehemence which broke 
my slumbers. The chill dews were falling round me, 
and the shades of evening stretched over the land- 
scape. I hastened homeward, and resigned the night 
to silence and meditation." 

The following fable of Lessing's is another speci- 
men of an allegory : — 

" The valiant Wolf. 

« < My father, of glorious memory,' said a young wolf 
to a fox, ' was a perfect hero ! What a terror he made 
himself to the whole neighbourhood ! He triumphed 
successively over more than two hundred enemies, 
and sent their wicked souls to the kingdom of per- 
dition. No wonder, then, that at last, he himself 
should be conquered by one.' 

' That is just the way a funeral orator would speak 
over a corpse,' said the fox ; ' but the veracious his- 
torian would add : — " These two hundred enemies over 
whom he triumphed w r ere sheep and asses ; and the 
one enemy by whom he was slain was the first 
bullock he dared to encounter." ' " 

Allegory may be occasionally introduced with very 
great effect in a moral essay. Dr. Johnson, in many 
of his essays, adopts a particular form of this figure. 

t 3 



278 ENGLISH STYLE. 

He invents a name to indicate a certain character : 
" Aliger " for one of fickle or capricious temper ; 
u Avarus " for a miser; " Gelidus " for a man of 
phlegmatic disposition, &c, and then gives a brief 
description of the habits or peculiarities of this ima- 
ginary personage. For example : — 

" Eriphile l has employed her eloquence for twenty 
years upon the degeneracy of servants, the nastiness 
of her house, the ruin of her furniture, the difficulty of 
preserving tapestry from the moths, and the careless- 
ness of the sluts whom she employs in brushing it. 
It is her business every morning to visit the rooms in 
hopes of finding a chair without its cover, a window 
shut or open contrary to her orders, a spot on the 
hearth, or a feather on the floor, that the rest of the 
day may be justifiably spent in taunts of contempt, or 
vociferations of anger. She lives for no other purpose 
but to preserve the neatness of a house and gardens, 
and feels neither inclination to pleasure, nor aspiration 
after virtue, while she is engrossed by the great em- 
ployment of keeping gravel from grass, and wainscot 
from dust. Of three amiable nieces, she has declared 
herself an irreconcilable enemy to one, because she 
broke off a tulip with her hoop; to another, because she 
spilt her coffee on a Turkey carpet ; and to the third, 
because she let a wet dog run into the parlour. She 
has broken off her intercourse of visits, because com- 
pany makes a house dirty ; and resolves to confine 
herself more to her own affairs, and to live no longer 
in mire by foolish lenity." 

1 A lover of strife. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 279 



Exercises in figurative Language. 

The forms of the following sentences are to be 
changed by the learner ; a figure of speech being sub- 
stituted for some given expression. The words in 
parentheses are intended as suggestions. 

1. At twelve o'clock at night, when all was silent, we 

were awakened from sleep by an explosion of 
artillery (dead, voice). 

2. To prevent injury, it was ordered that all heretics 

should quit the city immediately (contaminate, 
pollution). 

3. The wonderful eloquence of the orator so excited 

the patriotism of the people, that they rose to a 
man in rebellion (kindle, spark, burst, flame). 

4. The whole transaction was so disgraceful and dis- 

honourable, that it were well could his name be 
no more heard (stain, blot, page). 

5. The monks of the middle ages preserved much of 

the knowledge of antiquity (light, glimmer, 
distant ages). 

6. After inflicting this terrible injury on the enemy, 

the general again proposed to negotiate a peace 
(blow, olive-branch). t 

7. The chief, finding all remonstrances vain, at length 

unwillingly signed the treaty (heavy heart). 

8. Though the poor man used every exertion to 

maintain his family, he was always in diffi- 
culties ; and he now daily grew more and more 
straitened in circumstances (struggle, fortune, 
overtake, poverty). 

t 4 



280 ENGLISH STYLE. 

9. Nothing could surpass his persuasive eloquence ; 
he had but to speak the word, and all were at 
once ready to take up arms in his cause (honey, 
flow, lips ; swords, leap, scabbards). 

10. This decree of the Emperor took the whole city 

by surprise ; and none of the inhabitants dared 
to resist it (thunderbolt, lift voice). 

11. The beautiful vessel, with all sails spread, passed 

us rapidly, and was soon out of sight (wings, 
fade, view). 

12. News is just arrived of the loss of this vessel ; 

she is supposed to have sprung a leak and gone 
down: all on board perished (victim, watery 
grave). 

13. By these judicious measures, the discontent of 

the people was at length put a stop to ; and the 
whole country was again peaceful (spirit, expire, 
reign). 

14. The persevering labours of the missionaries at 

length succeeded : — Christianity was, even- 
tually, firmly established among the natives 
(crown, triumph, cross). 

15. Let us turn from these sad records of national 

disgrace, to recount more honourable transac- 
tions (brighter page). 

16. Notwithstanding all my entreaties, I could not 

persuade him to attend to my remonstrances, 
and he obstinately persisted in his previously- 
formed scheme (lend ear ; follow path). 

17. This subject is of so speculative a nature, that it 

is by no means easy to arrive at a satisfactory 
conclusion upon it (wide field). 

18. The city was crowded with people from all parts 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 281 

of the country, who had come to be present at 
the coronation (swarm). 

19. In his travels through Asia Minor, he discovered 

several Greek manuscripts on philosophical 
subjects (rescue, oblivion). 

20. His joy was so extravagant, that he scarcely knew 

what he was doing ; he sang, danced, and 
capered about like one possessed (intoxicate). 

21. His industry and perseverance enabled him to 

overcome difficulties which would have stopped 
the progress of ordinary men (surmount, bar- 
riers, daunt). 

22. This revolution was of a nature to interrupt the 

relations of society, and destroy all human sym- 
pathies (shock fabric, loosen bonds). 

23. New hordes of barbarians continually invaded 

the empire ; and no sooner was one tribe set- 
tled in a province, than it was succeeded by 
another (inundate, wave, barbarism). 

24. He pronounced a funeral oration over the corpse 

of the hero, in which the virtues and talents of 
the illustrious dead were celebrated with the 
highest praises (glowing strains). 

25. Justly fearing the anger of his fellow-citizens, he 

took every means to pacify their indignation 
(divert storm). 

26. Foreseeing the approach of danger, he made all 

the preparations against it which the crisis re- 
quired (storm). 

27. The Arabs had for some time coveted the pos- 

session of Spain, and eagerly seized this oppor- 
tunity of getting a footing in that country 
(longing eyes). 



282 ENGLISH STYLE. 

28. Being thrown into the thickest of the crowd, he 

found it impossible to extricate himself from the 
mass of human beings by whom he was sur- 
rounded (hurried along, tide). 

29. Wherever he came, the poet found that his fame 

had preceded him, and he was received with the 
greatest honours in every city through which 
he passed (fame, trumpet, laurels). 

30. The castle stood on a lofty rock, close to the 

shores of a beautiful Swiss lake (washed, 
waters). 

31. Harassed by grief and vexation, the unfortunate 

prelate was seized with a fever, of which he died 
after an illness of six weeks (prey, carried off). 

32. The principle of imitation is innate in man ; he 

feels its influence, and unconsciously puts it in 
practice from infancy to old age (cradle, grave, 
sway). 

33. This misfortune put an end to all his hopes ; he 

fell ill, and never again recovered his strength 
(blow, held up, head). 

34. It was a consolation to his friends to find that 

after so many toils and dangers, he should at 
length enjoy the results of his devotion to the 
cause (reap fruits). 

35. The people rose in rebellion against this into- 

lerable despotism, and regained their liberty 
(burst bonds, shackles, &c). 

36. His affairs were so extensive and complicated, 

that any unforeseen obstruction, even in a 
matter of minor importance, immediately threw 
the whole into inextricable confusion (machine, 
irregularity, smaller wheels). 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 283 

37. He took the greatest possible care that his designs 

should not be made known (shroud, veil). 

38. Keligion has the power of alleviating the mis- 

fortunes of life, and imparting cheerfulness to 
old age (disperse clouds ; sunshine, evening). 

39. Those who have a taste for the scenery of Nature 

may find instruction and amusement in every 
object (Nature speaks). 

40. Thus enjoying the highest favour of his sovereign, 

Cortes might now be regarded as offering an 
enviable alliance for the best houses in Castile 
(bask, sunshine). 

41. He determined to return to America, where a 

new opportunity was offered to him for honour- 
able enterprise (field opened). 

42. The career of many conquerors has been marked 

by cruelty (path, stain, blood). 

43. The injuries done in the preceding year were 

now repaired, and there was now no longer any 
evidence of the late war (hand, war, swept). 

44. The attack, which had been so long in preparation, 

was at length made on the capital (tempest, 
muster, fury). 

Exercise 2. 

The pupil is to re-write the following sentences ; 
in each case changing the figures of speech into 
common language. 

1. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb, and fits 

the back to the burden. 

2. Hope darts a ray of light through the thickest 

gloom. 



284 ENGLISH STYLE. 

3. Patience and resignation are the pillars of human 

peace on earth. 

4. A man should make the sphere of his innocent 

pleasures as wide as possible. 

5. Sloth saps the foundation of every virtue, and 

pours upon us a deluge of crimes and evils. 

6. Anxiety is the poison of human life ; it is the 

parent of many sins, and of more miseries. 

7. The field of hope appears to stretch wide before 

the young. 

8. Who but must drop a tear over human nature 

when he beholds that morning which arose so 
bright, overcast with such untimely darkness ! 

9. The ground thirsts for rain. 

10. Roses without thorns are the growth of Paradise 

alone. 

11. The earth smiles with plenty. 

12. The warrior's laurels are dyed in blood, and be- 

dewed with the tears of the widow and the orphan. 

13. While some sail o'er the tranquil surface of the 

unruffled lake of life, others have to steer 
through a troubled and stormy ocean. 

14. If the spring of life put forth no blossoms, in 

summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, 
no fruit. 

15. The fumes which arise from a heart boiling with 

violent passions, never fail to darken the under- 
standing. 

16. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a 

firm and constant spirit, will assuredly lead to 
happiness. 

17. The tear of repentance brings its own relief. 

18. Year after year steals something from us, till the 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 285 

decaying fabric totter of itself, and crumble 
at length into dust. 

19. Everything that we here enjoy, changes, decays, 

and comes to an end. All floats on the surface 
of that river which, with a swift current, is 
running towards a boundless ocean. 

20. The vessel which had been so long the sport of 

the winds, was at length buried in the deep. 

21. The fountains of heaven are opened ; the sky 

frowns darkly, and the thunder raises his tre- 
mendous voice. 

22. The splendour of his genius illumines every 

object on which it shines. 

23. The pulse of freedom throbs through every vein 

of the British Empire. 

24. " The moon unveiled her peerless light, and o'er 

the dark her silver mantle threw." 

25. The hand of industry had, in a few years. 

entirely changed the face of the country. 

26. Hope illumines our path through life, and, as 

the night grows darker, emits a brighter ray. 

27. Better that men should die bravely with their 

arms in their hands, than that they should slide 
into the bloodless but dishonourable grave 
which slavery opens for her vassals. 

28. The tongue is a little member ; but it causes much 

strife. 

29. He who hastens too speedily to reputation, often 

decks himself in colours which quickly fade, or 
in plumes which accident may shake off, or 
competition pluck away. 

30. He that neglects the culture of ground naturally 

fertile, is more shamefully culpable than he 



286 ENGLISH STYLE. 

whose field would scarcely recompense his hus- 
bandry. 

31. The British Constitution stands among the na- 

tions of the earth like an ancient oak in the forest; 
which, after having survived many a blast, 
overtops its companions and commands their 
respect and veneration. 

32. The zephyrs, borne from the golden East, pro- 

claimed the approach of morn with balmy gales. 

33. I heard the voice of the waters as they merrily 

danced from rock to rock. 

34. The earliest history of ancient nations is shrouded 

in impenetrable darkness. 

35. The voice of grief pierces through the clamour of 

exulting joys. 

36. He paid the last debt to Nature. 

37. The press teemed with tributes in verse and prose 

to the memory of the deceased. 

38. In all the miry paths of life which he had 

trodden, no speck ever sullied the robe of his 
modest and graceful muse. 

39. A nature so dependent on others for the sunshine 

of existence does not flower if deprived of the 
atmosphere of home. 

40. A gleam of sunshine broke through the gloom 

that was gathering over the poet. 

41. He launched into a sea of social dissipation. 

42. When a poet's fame is increased by time, it is then 

too late to investigate the peculiarities of his 
disposition ; the dews of the morning are past, 
and we vainly try to continue the chase by the 
meridian splendour. 



QUESTIONS ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 287 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PART VII. 

1. What is the origin of figurative language ? 

2. To what purposes may it be applied ? 

3. What distinction is made between figures of words and 

figures of thought ? 

4. Describe the figure "Personification." 

5. Explain the difference between active and passive personifi- 

cation. 

6. What rules are laid down for the management of this 

figure ? 

7. What is meant by " Apostrophe ? " 

8. In what cases may this figure be used ? 

9. What is " Hyperbole ?" 

10. To what principle is this figure referred ? 

11. How may it be abused ? 

12. Under what circumstances is hyperbole admissible? 

13. How many classes of hyperbole are there ? and which is the 

preferable ? 

14. What rules are to be observed in the application of this 

figure ? 

15. What is " Comparison ? " 

16. Eor what purposes is comparison used? 

17. Which class of comparison is properly adapted to poetry ? 

18. State some of the rules concerning the use of this figure. 

19. What is the difference between a simile and a comparison ? 

20. Give examples of both figures. 

21. Explain the figure "Metaphor." 

22. For what special purposes is the metaphor used ? 

23. Give the substance of the first rule on the use of metaphor. 

24. Are metaphors admissible in a long process of reasoning ? 

25. What does Rule 2 say on this subject ? 

26. Give some examples of incongruous or inconsistent me- 

taphors. 

27. Explain the meaning of the figure " Synecdoche.* 1 

28. What is meant by •' Metonymy ? " 



238 ENGLISH STYLE. 

29. Show how the application of these figures may increase 

vivacity of style. 

30. What is meant by the figure " Allusion ? " 

31. Describe the figure "Climax." 

32. What is the object of this figure ? 

33. Explain the meaning of the word " Allegory." 

34. Give some examples of this figure. 

35. Show how fables and parables are allegories. 

36. How does Johnson use this figure ? 



PART VIII. 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 

Our knowledge of the origin and affinities of Euro- 
pean languages has been, within the last forty or fifty 
years, greatly increased and improved by the labours 
of German scholars. The similarity in form of many 
words belonging to apparently different families of 
languages, was too striking to have escaped the ob- 
servation of writers on philology. But it was not till 
the attention of Grimm, Lassen, Bopp, Miiller, and 
others, had been directed towards it, that we possessed 
any systematic knowledge of this interesting subject ; 
and the result of their investigations is now before us. 
Without entering into details which would be out of 
place, the conclusions arrived at by these eminent 
scholars may be here briefly stated. 

It is the opinion of the above-named philologists 
that all the languages of Europe are derived from 
one grand source, viz. the Arian, or, as it is generally 
termed, the Indo-European ; a name which denotes its 
connection with India and Europe. That to this stem 
belong the ancient Sanscrit, and all the later dialects 

u 



290 ENGLISH STYLE. 

of India and Persia ; and that to the same source may 
be traced the Celtic, Teutonic, Italic, Hellenic, and 
Sclavonic languages. It is supposed that, at a date 
anterior to any historical record, a migration of these 
Arians towards the West took place. These tribes 
were called Kelts (or Celts), and they settled in the 
three most western countries of Europe ; viz. those 
afterwards called Spain, Gaul, and Britain. The Kelts 
were pressed onwards towards the west by another 
tribe of Arians — the Teutones. The dialects of 
Scandinavia, Flemish, Dutch, and modern German, 
belong to this second migration. The languages of 
eastern Europe, viz. the Lithuanian, Old Prussian, 
and Lettish, Russian, Polish, and Bohemian, are the 
branches of a third migration from the same original 
stem, and are known as the Slavonic or Wendic 
family. There is, also, no doubt that the two earliest 
civilised languages of Europe, viz. Greek and Latin, 
were both originally derived from the same source. 

Turning from this general survey of the earliest 
languages of both civilised and barbarous Europe, we 
shall now direct our attention to the one with which 
we are naturally most interested — English. 

In order to become thoroughly acquainted with the 
language of any country, we must not only understand 
its present condition, but must be able to trace it 
through all the phases of its history, that we may learn 
what circumstances either of external attack, or in- 
ternal social disturbance, may have contributed to its 
modifications or changes ; or what trials it may have 
undergone before it appeared in its present condition. 
Of the language of the ancient Britons, as they were 
found by Caesar, we know little or nothing ; but it is 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 291 

fair to conclude that the long dominion exercised over 
them by the Romans was not very favourable to its 
development or improvement. The language of an 
oppressed people can never flourish : without cultiva- 
tion of mind there can be no advancement in mental 
expression, and the condition of the one is a certain 
criterion of the condition of the other. The Romans 
left many and lasting traces of their rule in this 
country, and the English language, even at the present 
moment, is not wholly without signs of their former 
dominion in Britain. 

This is shown particularly in the names of places. 
It is commonly known that the termination * caster,' 
or * cester,' as in Lancaster, Gloucester, Chester, &c, 
points out the sites of ancient Roman encampments. 
Again, the form 'coin/ as in Lincoln, Calne, Coin- 
brook, &c, is derived from the Latin ' colonia/ and 
marks the ancient agricultural stations of the Romans. 
According to some writers also, the word ' street ' was 
left to the Britons by their Roman conquerors, they 
having been the first to make * strata viariim,' or 
military roads, throughout the country. But these, 
and perhaps a few more words, form but a very small 
contribution to our present language, and can have no 
sensible effect on its general character. 

Remains of the ancient British may still be found 
in various names of places scattered throughout the 
island ; such as ' Kent,' 'Thames,' &c. Some few other 
Celtic words, have found a place in modern English ; 
as bard, kilt, clan, pibroch, plaid, &c. But even at 
the highest computation, Celtic forms a very minute 
portion of the present English language. 

The remains of the Celtic language, which, at one 
u 2 



292 ENGLISH STYLE. 

time, was spread over all the western countries of 
Europe, are now comparatively scanty. They are 
found, 1. in Wales, where there is still a Celtic popu- 
lation retaining its original language. 2. In the Isle 
of Man, where it is called the Manx. 3. In the 
Cornish, or dialect of the common people of Cornwall. 
4. In the Highlands of Scotland, where the language 
is termed Gaelic. 5. In the Erse, or language of the 
lower orders of Ireland ; and 6. in the " Bas Breton," 
or common speech of the peasants and fishermen of 
Bretagne. 

On the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain 
in the 5th century, a violent revolution took place both 
in the political condition, and in the language, of the 
country. It is a matter of history that the Saxons 
were invited to repel the northern tribes that had in- 
vaded the southern part of the island — that they 
successfully drove back those fierce invaders — that 
they treacherously turned their arms against their 
own allies, and eventually driving them into the 
corners of the island, or beyond sea, they established 
themselves throughout the length and breadth of the 
country. In both people and language, there was now 
no amalgamation, no modification ; but the substitution 
of one for another ; Saxons for Britons, Teutonic for 
Celtic. 

The language now introduced, though originally 
derived from the same source (Arian), was at this 
time distinctly different from the ancient British. "We 
do not possess much information concerning the state 
of the Anglo-Saxon language in the 5th century. In 
all probability, it was but the barbarous jargon of 
rude uncivilised pirates ; and wholly unfit for literary 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



293 



purposes. But in course of time came improvement 
and refinement, and this language, long before a line 
of modern French, German, Italian, or Spanish ex- 
isted, became vigorous, expressive, and exact ; fit for 
many of the requirements of literature. 

Anglo-Saxon was an inflected language. It had 
forms of declensions, and various terminations of cases, 
both in nouns and adjectives. For example: — 

In the noun : — eag-e (an eye). 

Sing. N. eag-e, an eye 

G. & D. eag-an, of, or to, an eye 

Plur. G. eag-ena, of eyes 

Ab. eag-um, with eyes, &c. 

In the adjective — god (good). 





Mas. 


Fern. 


Neut. 




N. god 


god 


god 




G. god-es 


god-re 


god-es 




D. god-um 


god-re 


god-um 




A. god-ne 


god-e 


god 




Ab. god-e 


god-e 


god. 




The pronoun Ic (I) was thus declined : — 




Singular* 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


Ic, / 


K wit, 


we two 


N. Ave, we 


G. 


min, of me 


G. uncer, of us two 


G. tire, of us 


D. 


me, to me 


D. unc, 


to us two 


D. us, to us 


A. 


me, me 


A. unc, 


us two 


A. us, us. 



There were also various inflections of persons and 
tenses in verbs, as : — 

Present Past. Participle. 

Ic luf-ige, 1 love I Ic luf-ode, I loved I (ge)-lut-od, lovtd 
Ic drif-e, / drive I Ic draf, I drove I (ge)-dri-fen, driven* 

Saxon had also a great power of combination ; both 
by prefix and affix, as well as by the union of r K>tej 

U 3 



294 ENGLISH STYLE. 

&c. for example : fic-treow (fig-tree) ; snaw-hwit 
(snow-white) ; lif-fsestan (to quicken); fore-rynel (fore- 
runner), &c. 

It also had a regular system of syntax : — Adjec- 
tives governing a case ; as, " Wintrum geong," 
Young in years ; a government of verbs ; as, "iEtla 
weold Hunum " (dat.), Attila ruled the Huns. 
Prepositions governing cases ; as, " Ga geond wegas 
and hegas (ace), Go through the ways and hedges ; 
" Uppon anum beame " (dat.), Upon a beam, &c. 

The inroads made by the Danes on Saxon England, 
and the eventual establishment of a Danish dynasty in 
the island, had no very marked effect on the language, 
as these marauders spoke a cognate language with the 
Saxon. Their influence in this respect is chiefly observ- 
able in the names of the places they occupied. They 
are known to have given their present names to the 
towns of Derby, Whitby, Allerby, &c, by being the 
Danish form of the word signifying ' town.' The 
( bye,' in the word ' bye-laws,' is also referred to a 
Danish origin. 

This was the language of England from the middle 
of the 5th to the middle of the 11th century. 

The next great change that took place in the lan- 
guage of this country was effected by the Norman 
conquest of England in the eleventh century. After 
Gaul was wrested from the Eoman Empire, and fell 
into the hands of various barbarous tribes, the lan- 
guage of that country remained Latin, mixed with the 
dialects of the barbarians who now occupied the soil ; 
viz., the Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths. Out of 
this confusion of tongues there came forth, after a 
time, two distinct dialects ; the Langue d'oc, or Pro- 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 295 

venial, spoken in the South, and the Langue d'oil 
in the North, of France. The river Loire was the 
boundary of these two languages. They were also 
distinguished by the names applied respectively to 
their poets ; those of the South being called Trouba- 
dours, and those of the North, Trouveres. The chief 
difference in character between these two languages 
was that the Langue d'oc possessed more of the Latin 
element, and was distinguished by its beauty and 
softness ; whilst the Langue d'oil, being derived from 
more numerous sources, and possessing a larger pro- 
portion of the Germanic element, had greater energy 
and force, and eventually superseded the Southern 
language. From this Langue d'oil, or Norman-French, 
the modern French language has sprung, and it is in 
this division that we are more particularly interested, 
as it came in time to form a very considerable part of 
the English language. 

The formation of the English language into the 
condition it afterwards attained, may be dated from 
this period, viz., 1066. Both our language and litera- 
ture now take a new direction. Two great streams, 
the Norman-French and Anglo-Saxon, flow side by 
side, and yet without mingling together, for more 
than 200 years ; the former used by the conquerors, 
and the latter by the conquered people. During the 
Norman, and for a considerable part of the Plantagenet, 
dynasty, French was spoken by the king and bis 
nobles, and was used in the law-courts; Latin was the 
language of churchmen ; and Saxon, that of the 
townsmen and peasants, that is, of the great majority 
of the population. 

u 4 



296 ENGLISH STYLE. 

SAXON PERIOD. 
A.D. 450—1066. 

The following are specimens of Anglo-Saxon : — 

1. From Ccedmorfs " Paraphrase of the Scriptures" 

(7th century.) l 
Her aerest ge-sceop ece Dryhten, Helm eal- 

Now first shaped (the) eternal Lord, Chief of all 

wihta, heofon and eordan. Rodor a-raerde, and pis 

creatures, Heaven and earth, (the) Firmament reared, and this 

rume land ge-sta$elode strangum mihtum, Frea 

spacious land established with strong powers, The Lord 

sel-mihtig. 
Almighty. 



I 



2. From King Alfred's translation of " Boethius" 2 

Se-f>e wille wyrcan waestmbaere-lond, a-teo of pam 

He that will work fruit- ful land, let him pluck of the 

83cere serest sona fearn, and fcornas, and fyrsas, swa-same 
field first straightway ferns, and thorns, and furzes, as also 



1 Cssdmon, a monk of Whitby in Yorkshire, has been called 
" the Father of English Song." He is the first of whom we 
possess any metrical composition. His known works are: — 
1. A short ode, or hymn, in praise of the Creator; and 2. A 
long poem, or metrical paraphrase, of various parts of the 
Scriptures. Csedmon is supposed to have died about the year 
680. a.d. 

2 Alfred, the greatest king that ever swayed the English 
sceptre, was celebrated, not only as a statesman and lawgiver, 
but also as a scholar and writer. He is the author of ten original 
works and eight translations ; among the latter of which, the 
best known is that of the " Consolation of Philosophy," of 
Boethius. Alfred was born, 849 ; and died, 901. a.d. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 297 

weod, fa f e willad wel hwaer derian clsenura hwsete ; f vises 
weeds, that will every-where hurt (the) clean wheat ; lest 

he ci$a -leas liege on psem lande. 
it germ-less lie on the land. 

The Gospels were translated by -ZElfric into 
Saxon in the 9th or 10th century ; the following is a 
specimen : — 

3. St. Matthew xii. 1. fyc. 

1. Se Hgelend for on reste-daeg ofer seceras ; 
The Saviour journeyed on (the) Sabbath through fields ; 

so$-lice his leorning-cnihtas hyngrede, and hig ongunnon 
but his disciples hungered, and they began 

pluccian fa ear, and etan. 
(to) pluck the ears, and eat. 

2. S6S-lice fa fa sundor-halgan f set gesawon, hi cwajdon 

But when the Pharisees that saw, they said 

to him : Nu. fine leorning-cnihtas doS J?cet him al} fed 
to him : Now thy disciples do what to them allowed 

nis reste-dagum to donne. 
is not on Sabbath-days to do. 

3. And he cwsed to him : Ne nedde ge hwagt Dauid dyde 
And he said to them : Have ye not read what David did 

fa hine hyngrede, and fa f e mid him wairon ; 
to him hungry, and they that with him were ; 

4. Hu he in-eode on Godes hus, and a3t fa offring- 
How he entered into God's house, and ate the offering- 

hlafas fe nairon him a-lyfede to ctannc, biiton fain 

loaves which were not (to) him allowed to eat, but to the 

sacerdum anum ? &c. 
priests alone ? &c. 



298 ENGLISH STYLE. 

4. From the " Saxon Chronicle" * 

[Annals of the earliest Anglo-Saxon times to A. d. 
1154, compiled by various monks.] 

a.d. 596. Her Gregorius Papa sende to Brytene Au- 

Now Gregory (the) Pope sent to Britain Au- 

gustinum mid wel monegum munucum, J?a Godes word 
gustine with full many monks, that God's word (they) 

sceoldon bodian Angel-cynne. 
should announce to the Angle-race. 

a.d. 901. Her for$-ferde iElf-red, ./ESel-wulfing, six nihtum 
Now went forth Alfred, son of Ethelwulf, six nights 

2dY Ealra Haligra Msessan ; se wses cyning ofer eal Angel- 
before All Hallows' Mass ; he was king over all the Angle- 

cyn, biitan £>am dgele ]>q under Dena on-weald^ wses. And 
race, except that part which by the Danes ruled was. And 

he heold J?set rice 6<5er-healf gear lass }?e J^ryttig wintra. 
he held that kingdom one and a half year less than thirty winters. 

The following is a specimen of the language brought 
into England at the Norman Conquest, commonly 
called Anglo-Norman, or Norman-French : — 

From the poem of Charlemagne. 

Un jur fu Karleun al Seint Denis muster 
One day was Charles at Saint Denis minster 

Reout pris sa corune, en croix seignat sun chef, 
Had taken his crown, in cross marked his head, 



1 What is called the " Saxon Chronicle " is not the work of 
one hand, but that of a great number of writers. It is a series 
of records of English annals from the earliest times to the end 
of the Norman dynasty, 1154. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 299 

E ad ceinte sa espee ; li pons fud d'or mer, 
And had girt his sword ; the hilt was of gold pure, 

Dux i out, e demeines, e baruns, e chevalers. 
Dukes there he had, and lords, and barons, and cavaliers. 

Li empereres reguardet la reine sa muillers ; 
The emperor looked at the queen his wife ; 

Ele fut ben corunee al plus bel e as meux. 

She was well crowned as the most beautiful and as the best. 

For 200 years, viz., from the middle of the 11th 
till the middle of the 13th century, the Norm an -French 
and Saxon were both used in this country. How far 
the former affected the latter is not positively known ; 
but the following authenticated facts prove that Saxon 
was not much encouraged during this period : — 

1. Private letters were always written in Latin. 

2. Conversation between students of the universities 
was ordered to be carried on in Latin. 

3. All law proceedings and documents concerning 
the corporation of London were in French. 

4. Latin was translated into French by boys at 
school. 

But whatever attempts may have been made to exter- 
minate the old language, it was still preserved, though, 
in the course of the above-named period, it underwent 
various changes in form and inflection. From the 
Conquest till 1250, it is called by modern writers 
Semi, or Half, Saxon. This is the Saxon in a state of 
transition, when it had ceased to be genuine Saxon, 
but was not yet English : — 



300 



ENGLISH STYLE. 



SEMI-SAXON PERIOD. 
A.D. 1066—1250. 



(1.) Specimen of Semi 

Bladud hafde ene sune 
Bladud had a son 
Leir was ihaten ; 
Leir was hight ; 
Efter his fader daie 
After his father's days 
He heold Jns drihlice lond 
He held this liege land 
Somed an his live, 
Together through his life, 
Sixti winter. 
Sixty winters. 

He makade ane riche burh 
He made a rich borough 
purh radfulle his crafte, 
Thro' wise his craft, 
And he heo lette nemnen 
And he let it name 
Efter him seolvan ; 
After him self ; 
Kaer-Leir hehte £>e burh. 
Caer-Lear hight the burgh. 
Leof heo waes J?an kinge, 
Dear it was to the king, 
pa we, an ure leod-quide, 
Which we, in our language, 

Leir-chestre clepiad 
Leicester call 
Geare a J?an holde dawon. 
Of yore in the old days. 



Saxon in two dialects. 

Bladud hadde one sone 

Bladud had a son 

Leir was ihote ; 

Leir was hight ; 

After his fader he held {^is lond 

After his father he held the land 

In his owene hond 
In his own hand 

Haste his lif-dages, 
Through his life days, 
Sixti winter. 
Sixty winters. 

He makede on riche borh 
He made a rich borough 
porh wisemenne reade, 
Through wise men's counsel, 
And hine lette nemni 
And he let it name 
After him seolve ; 
After him self ; 
Kair Leir hehte \>q borh. 
Kaer-Lear hight the borough. 
Leof he was J?an kinge, 
Dear it was to the king, 
pe we, on ure speche, 
Which we, in our speche, 

LeJ?-chester cleopief> 
Leicester call 

In }-an eolde daiye. 
In the old days. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 301 

There is a metrical translation of Wace's poem, the 
" Brut d'Angleterre," by one Layamon. a priest of 
Ernely, on the Severn. Though its exact date is not 
known, there are good grounds for believing that it 
was written at the close of the 12th century. If so, 
it throws a valuable light on the history of our lan- 
guage at this period of its existence. The following 
is a specimen : — 

2. Extract from an account of the proceedings at 
Arthur's coronation, given by Layamon (about 
1180?): — 

Tha the king igeten hafde, 
When the king eaten had, 

And all his mon-weorede. 
And all his many multitude, 

Tha bugan out of burghe 
Then fled out of the town 

Theines swithen balde. 
The people very quickly. 

Alle tha kinges, 
All the kings, 

And heore here-thringes ; 
And their servant-throngs ; 

Alle tha bisceopes, 
All the bishops, 

And alle tha clarckes ; 
And all the priests ; 

Alle the eorles, 
All the earls, 

And alle tha beornes ; 
And all the nobles ; 

Alle tha theines, 
All the people, 



302 ENGLISH STYLE, 

Alle the sweines, 
All the swains, 



Feire iscrudde, 
Fairly dressed, 

Helde geon felde. 
Held through fields. 

Summe heo gunnen ceruen, 

Some they began to shoot (arrows), 

Summe heo gunnen urnen, 
Some they began to run, 

Summe heo gunnen lepen, 
Some they began to leap, 

Summe heo gunnen sceoten, 

Some they began to shoot (darts), 

Summe heo wrastleden, 
Some they wrestled, 

And wither-gome makeden. 
And contest-games made. 

Summe heo on velde 
Some they in fields 

Pleouweden under scelde ; 
Played under shields ; 

Summe heo driven balles 
Some they drove balls 

Wide geond the feldes. 
Wide through the fields. 

Moni ane kunnes gomen 
Many a kind (of) game 

Ther heo gunnen drinen. 
There they began to urge. 

And wha swa mihte iwenne 
And who so might win 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 303 

Wurthscipe of his gomene, 
Worship of his gaming, 

Hine me ladde mide songe 
Him one led with song 

At foren than leod kinge. 
Before the people's king. 

And the king, for his gomene, 
And the king, for his gaming, 

Gaf him geven gode. 
Gave him gifts good. 

Alle tha quene 
All the queens 

The icumen weoren there, 
Who were come there, 

And alle tha lafdies, 
And all the ladies, 

Leoneden geond walles 
Leaned over the walls 

To bihalden the duge then 
To behold the nobles then 

And that folc plasie. 
And that folk play. 

This ikeste threo dasges, 
This lasted three days, 

Swulc gomes, and swulc plaeghs, 
Such games, and such plays. 

Tha, at than veorthe dseie, 
Then, at the fourth day, 

The king gon to spekene, 
The king went to council, 

And agaf his gode cnihten 
And gave his good knights 



304 ENGLISH STYLE, 

All heore rihten : 
All their rewards : 
He gef seolver, he gef gold, 
He gave silver, he gave gold, 
He gef hors, he gef lond, 
He gave horse, he gave land, 
Castles and clsethes eke, 
Castles and clothes also, 
His monnen he iquende. 
His men he satisfied. 

The next phase of our language is called by scholars 
the early English. This was another step forward ; 
the language now began to admit a considerable 
number of French words, and though its grammatical 
forms were but little changed, the two streams, Nor- 
man-French and Saxon, were more closely inter- 
mingled. There is no doubt that this was the natural 
consequence of their relative position ; and, in all 
probability, it contributed very materially to the ulti- 
mate ascendancy of the English over the French. 



PERIOD OF EARLY ENGLISH. 
A.D. 1250—1350. 






SPECIMENS. 

1. Dedication by the author of the " Ormulum" 
to his Brother (about 1250) : — 

Nu, brotherr Walterr, brotherr min, affterr the flseshes kinde, 
Now, brother Walter, brother mine, after the flesh's kind, 

And brotherr min i Crisstendom, thurrh fulluht and thurrh 
And brother mine in Christendom, through baptism and through 

trowwthe, 

faith, 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 305 

And brotherr min i Godess hus, yet o the thridde wise. 
And brother mine in God's house, yet in the third wise. 

Thurrh thatt witt hafenn takenn ba an reghell-boc to 

Through (for) that we have taken both one rule-book to 

follghen 

follow 
Vnnderr kanunnkess had and lif, swa sumrn Saunt Awwstin 
Under canon's rank and life, so as Saint Austin 

sette ; 

ruled; 
Ice hafe don swa summ thu badd, and fortheddte thin wille : 
I have done so as thou badest, and furthered thy will (wish): 

Ice hafe wennd inn till Ennglissh goddspelless halghe lare 

I had turned into English (the) gospel's holy lore 

Affterr thatt little witt tatt me min Drihhten hafethth lenedd. 
After that little wit that me my Lord hath lent. 

2. Proclamation of Henry III. to the Inhabitants of 
Huntingdonshire (a. d. 1258): — 

Henry, thurg Godes fultume, King on Engleloande, Lhoaverd 
Henry, through God's grace, King in England, Lord 

on Yrloand, Duk on Norm', on Aquitain', and Eorl on 
in Ireland, Duke in Normandy, in Aquitaine, and Earl in 

, Aniou, send, igretinge, to alle hise halde, ilaerde and ikewed, 
Anjou, sends, greeting, to all his subjects, learned and lay, 

on Huntendon' schir' : 
in Huntingdon shire : 

Thast witen ye wel, alle, thaet we willen and unnen thset tliaet 
This know ye well, all, that we will and grant that that 

ure raedesmen, alle other the moare dael of heom, th 
-'our counsellors, all, or the more part of them, that be 

ichosen thurg us and thurg that loandes folk on are k 

'< chosen through us and through the land's i'olz in our kingdom 

X 



306 ENGLISH STYLE. 

habbeth iclon, and schullen don, in the worthnesse of Gode, and 
have done, and shall do, in the honour of God, and 

on ure treowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurg the besigte 
in our truth, for the good of the land, through the business 

of than to-foreniseide redesmen, beo stedefaest and ilestinde in 
of the to-foresaid counsellors, be steadfast and lasting in 

alle thinge abuten aende. &c. 
all things without end. &c. 

3. The commencement of Robert of Gloucester's 
" Chronicle" (about A. d. 1300 l ): — 

Engelond ys a wel god lond, ich wene, of each lond best, 

England is a very good land, I ween, of every land (the) best, 

Yset in the ende of the world, as al in the West, 
Set in the end of the world, as wholly in the West, 

The see goth hym al a boute, he stont as an yle ; 
The sea goeth it all about, it standeth as an isle ; 

Here fon heo durre the lasse doute, but hit be thorw gyle 
Her foes she need the less fear, except it be through guile 

Of fol of the selue lond, as me hath yseye wyle. ■ 
Of folk of the same land, as one has seen sometimes. 

From South to North he is long eighte hondred myle ; 
From South to North it is long eight hundred mile ; 

And foure hondred myle brod from Est to West to wende 
And four hundred mile broad from East to West to wend 

Amydde tho lond as yt be, and noght as by the on ende. &c. 
Amid the land as it be, and not as by the one ende. &c. 



1 Eobert of Gloucester is supposed to have been a monk in 
the abbey of that city. Nothing is known of his biography. His 
work is an account of English affairs, from the beginning, down 
to his own time. The chronicle is in rhyme, and consists of 
more than 10,000 lines. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 307 

4. From Robert de Brunne's Translation of Piers de 
Langtofts "French Chronicle" (1340 P 1 ): — 

Edward did smyte rounde peny, halfpeny, ferthing, 
The croise passed the bounde of alle thorghout the ryng, 
The kyng's side salle be the hede, and his name writen, 
The croyce side, what cite it was in coyned and smyten ; 
A thousand and two hundred and fourscore yeres mo, 
Of this mone men wondred first when it gan go. 

About the middle of the 14th century the French 
language declined, and was eventually discontinued 
in England. This was, in all probability, materially 
assisted by the strong national feeling against the 
French in the reign of Edward III. ; a natural conse- 
quence of the wars of that monarch with France. 
There is also evidence to show that, at the same 
period, the practice of making boys construe Latin into 
French was discontinued, English being substituted 
for French, as a medium of instruction in grammar 
schools. Again, it was ordered, in 1362, that hence- 
forward all trials should be conducted in the English, 
and not in the French, language. Thus the ascendency 
of the Saxon over the French element in our language 
was established, and dates from this period. 



1 Robert Manning was a canon in the monastery of Brunnc 
(or Bourne), in Lincolnshire, who lived in the latter part of 
Edward the First, and the whole of Edward the Second's, 
reign. He translated a French Chronicle of England by Peter 
de Langtoft, a monk of Bridlington in Yorkshire. 



308 ENGLISH STYLE. 



PERIOD OF MIDDLE ENGLISH. 
a.d. 1350—1550. 

1. Extract from Lawrence Minors poem on "Edward 
the Third's Expedition to France " (about 1350 l ) : — 

Edward, owre comely king, 
In Braband has his woning 2 , 

With many comely knight ; 
And in that land, truely to tell, 
Ordains he still for to dwell, 

To time 3 he think to fight. 

Now God, that is of mightes mast 4 , 
Grant him grace of the Holy Ghast 

His heritage to win ; 
And Mary, Moder, of mercy free, 
Save our king and his meny 5 

Fro sorrow, shame, and sin. 

Thus in Braband he has been, 
Where he before was seldom seen, 

For to prove their japes 6 ; 
Now no langer will he spare — 
Bot unto France fast will he fare, 

To comfort him with grapes. 



1 Lawrence Minot lived and wrote about the middle of the 
14th century. His poems are chiefly concerning the battles and 
victories of Edward III., and are remarkable for their vigour and 
heroic spirit. 

2 Dwelling. s Until. 

4 Most of might, most mighty. 5 Many ; followers. 
6 Jeers. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3C9 

Furth he fared into France, 
God save him fro mischance, 

And all his company ; 
The noble Duke of Braband 
With him went into that land, 

Ready to live or die. 

Then the rich flower de lice 1 
Wan there full little price, 

Fast he fled for feard : 
The right heir of that countree 
Is comen 2 , with all his knightes free, 

To shake him by the beard. 

Sir Philip the Yalays 3 
Wit 4 his men in tho days, 

To battle had he thought. 5 
He bade his men them purvey, 
Withouten langer delay ; 

But he ne held it nought. 

He brought folk full great won 6 — 
Aye, seven agains 7 one — 

That full well weaponed were ; 
But soon, when he heard ascry s , — 
That King Edward was near thereby, 

Then durst he nought come near. 

In that morning fell a mist, 
And when our Englishmen it wist, 

It changed all their cheer ; 
Our king unto God made his boon 9 , 
And God sent him good comfort soon, 

The weader wex 10 full clear, &c. 



1 Fleur de lys. 2 Come. 

8 Philip VI. de Yalois. 4 Told, informed. 

5 He intended to fight. 6 A great number of people. 

7 Against. 6 The report. 

9 Vow. ,0 The weather grew. 

x 3 



310 ENGLISH STYLE. 

2. From LanglanoVs Poem of the "Vision of Piers 
Ploughman''' (written about 1360 1 ) : — 

In a summer season, 
When soft was the sun, 
I shoop 2 me into shrouds 3 
As I a sheep 4 were ; 
In habit as a hermit 
Unholy of werkes 5 , 
Went wide into this world 
Wonders to hear ; 
Ac 6 on a May morwening, 
On Malvern hills, 
Me befel a ferly 7 ; 
I was weary for- wandered 8 , 
And went me to rest 
Under a brood 9 bank, 
By a burn's 10 side ; 
And as I lay and leaned 
And looked on the waters, 
I slumbered into a sleeping, 
It swayed so mury. 11 
Then gan I meten 12 



1 Of the author of " The Vision of Piers Ploughman," 
Robert, or, according to some, William Langland, little, if any- 
thing, is known. He is supposed to have been a monk, residing 
somewhere in the West of England. His poem, which is an 
allegorical satire against the clergy, exhibits a revival of the 
Saxon alliteration, and consists of between 14,000 and 15,000 
lines. 

2 Put. 3 Clothes. 4 Shepherd. 

5 An unholy hermit ; one who goes into the world. 

6 And. 7 A wonder. 8 Weary of wandering. 
9 Broad. 10 Stream, brook. 

11 It sounded so merry (pleasant). 12 To meet. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 311 

A marvellous sweveu 1 , 
That I was in a wilderness, 
Wist I never where ; 
And as I beheld into the East, 
On high to the Sun, 
I seigh 2 a tower on a toft 3 
Frieliche ymaked 4 ; 
A deep dale beneath, 
A donjon therein, 
With deep ditches and darke, 
And dreadful of sight 5 ; 
A fair field full of folk 
Found I there between, 
Of all manner of men, 
The mean and the rich, 
Werking and wandering 
As the world asketh. 
&c. &c. &c. 

3. Extract from the Wilt Chapter of Sir John Man- 
devilUs " Travels " (written about 1370 6 ) : — 

And zee schull vnderstonde that Machamete was 
born in Arabye, that was first a pore knaue 7 that kept 
cameles that wen ten with marchantes for marchandise 
in to Egipt, and thei were thanne Cristene in tho 
partyes. And at the desartes of Arabye he wente in to 
a chapell wher a that was but a lytill and a low thing, 

1 Dream. 2 Saw. 3 High ground ; tuft. 

4 Handsomely made. 5 Dreadful to behold. 

6 Sir John Mandeville, our earliest prose writer, was born at 
St. Albans in the year 1300, and died at Liege in 1372, I i i ^ 
book of voyages and travels, which is remarkably clear and 
correct in style, is a singular collection of the marvellous 

of the middle ages. 

7 A poor boy. 

x 4 



312 ENGLISH STYLE. 

and had but a lytil dor' and a low, than the entree 
began to wexe so gret and so large and so high, as 
though it had be of a gret mynster, or the zate of a 
paleys. 1 And this was the first myracle the Sarazins 
seyn that Machoraete dide in his zouthe. After began 
he for to wexe wyse and riche ; and he was a gret 
astronomer; and after, he was gouernour and prince of 
the land of Corrodane, and he gouerned it full wisely, 
in such manere, that when the prince was ded, he toke 
the lady to wyfe that highte Gadridge. And Macho- 
mete fell often in the grete sikeness that men calle the 
fallyinge euyll. Wherfore the lady was full sory that 
euere sche toke him to husbonde. But Machomete 
made hire to beleeve that all tymes when he fell so, 
Gabriel the angel cam for to speke with him, and for 
the grete light and brightnesse of the angell, he might 
not susteyne him fro fallynge, &c. 

4. St Luke, Chap. XVI. Wiclifs Translation 
(about 1380 2 ): — 

Forsothe he seide also to his disciples, Ther was 
sum 3 riche man, that hadde a fermour, ether a baily ; 
and this was defamyd anentis him, as he had wastid 
his goodis. And he clepide him, and seide to him, 
What heere I this thing of thee ? yeld resoun 4 of thi 

1 The gate of a palace. 

2 John Wiclif, professor of Theology at Baliol College, 
Oxford, was born 1324, and died 1384. His greatest work was 
a translation of the Scriptures into English. The whole still 
exists in manuscript, but only the New Testament has been 
printed. Wiclifs style, though occasionally animated, is gene- 
rally rude and coarse. 

3 A certain. 4 Give an account. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 313 

ferme, for now thou schalt not mowe hold thi ferme. 
Forsoth the fermour seide with ynne him silf, What 
schal I do, for my lord taketh awey fro me the 
ferme ? I may not delue, I am aschamyd to hegge. 
1 woot what I schal do, that whanne I schal be re- 
mouyd fro the ferme, thei receyue me in to her housis. 
And alle the dettours of the lord clepid to gidere, he 
seide to the firste, Hou moche owist thou to my lord ? 
And he said to him, An hundrid barelis of oyle. And 
he seide to him, Taak thin obligacioun, and sitte soon, 
and wryt fifti. Aftirward he seide to another, Sothli 
hou moche owist thou ? Which seide, An hundrid 
mesuris of whete. And he seide to him, Tak thi 
lettris, and wryt foure score. And the lord preiside 
the fermour of wickidnesse, for he hadde don pru- 
dently ; for the sones of this world ben more prudent 
in her generacioun than the sones of light. And I 
seie to you, Make to you frendes of the richesse of 
wickidnesse, that, whan ye shulen fayle, thei receyue 
you in to everlastyne tabernaclis. 

o. From the Translation of Higdeiis "Polychronicon" 
by Trevisa (1385 l ):— 

This apayringe 2 of the birthe tonge is by cause of 
tweye thinges : oon is for children in scole, agenea 
the usage and maner of alle other naciouns, beth 

1 Ralph Higden, author of the Latin Chronicle called the 
" Polychronicon," was a Benedictine monk of Chester, where he 
died about 1370. His work was translated by John d 

in the year 1385. 

2 Disparaging. ' A Against. 



314 ENGLISH STYLE. 

compelled for to leve her owne langage, and for to 
constrewe her lessons and her thingis a Frensche, and 
have siththe l that the Normans come first into Eng- 
lond. Also gentil mennes children beth ytaught for 
to speke Frensche from the tyme that thei beth rokked 
in her cradel, and kunneth speke and playe with a 
childes brooche. And uplondish 2 men wol likne hem 
self to gentil men, and fondeth with grete bisynesse 
for to speke Frensche, for to be the more ytold of. 

This maner was myche yused to fore the first 
moreyn, 3 and is siththe som del ychaungide. For John 
Cornwaile, a maistre of grammer, chaungide the lore 
in grammer scole and construction of Frensch into 
• Englisch, and Richard Pencriche lerned that maner 
teching of him, and other men of Pencriche. So 
that now,, the yere of our Lord a thousand thre hun- 
dred foure score and fy ve, of the secunde King Rychard 
after the Conquest nyne, in alle the gramer scoles of 
Englond children leveth Frensch, and construeth and 
lerneth an Englisch, and haveth therby avauntage in 
oon side and desavauntage in another. Her avauntage 
is, that thei lerneth her gramer in lasse tyme than 
children were wont to do. Desavauntage is, that now 
children of gramer scole kunneth no more Frensch 
that can her lifte heele. 4 And that is harm for them, 
and thei schul passe the see and travaile in strange 
londes, and in many other places also. Also gentil 
men haveth now mych ylefte for to teche 5 her children 
Frensch. 

1 Since. 2 Country. 

3 Before the first murrain. 

4 Know no more French than their left heel. 

5 Discontinued teaching. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. olo 

From the Prologue to Chaucer 's " Canterbury 
Tales' 9 (about 1390 l ): — 

There was also a nun, a Prioress, 

That of her smiling was full simple and coy, — 

Her greatest oathe, n'as but by St. Loy [ 2 

And she was cleped 3 Madame Eglantine. 

Pull well she sange the service divine, 

Entuned in her nose full sweetely ; 

And French she spake, full fair and fetisly 4 , 

After the school of Stratford atte Bow — 

For French of Paris was to her unknow. 5 

At meate was she well y-taught, withal — 

She let no morsels from her lippes fall, 

Ne wet her fingers in her sauce deep : 

Well could she carry a morsel, and well keep 

Thatte no drop ne fell upon her breast. 

In curtesy was set full much her lest 6 j 

Her over-lippe wiped she so clean, 

That in her cuppe was no ferthing 7 seen, 

Of grease, when she drunken had her draught 

Full seemely after her meat she raught 8 , 

And sickerly 9 : she was of great disport, 



1 Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) is distinguished as "The 
Father of English Poetry." His writings are very voluminous, 
but the "Canterbury Tales" is the work on which his reputation 
is mainly founded. Here, his versification is flowing ami har- 
monious, and his expression clear and correct. In this poem 
displays a wonderful knowledge of human character; exquisite 
humour, delicate sensibility, and deep feeling. The "Canter- 
bury Tales" consist of about 17,000 lines. 

2 St.Eloi. 3 Called. 

4 Neatly. 5 Unknown. 

6 Pleasure. 7 Small spot, or stain. 

8 Reached. 9 Smvly, certainly. 



316 ENGLISH STYLE. 

And full pleasant, and amiable of port, 
And pained her 1 to counterfeiten cheer 
Of court, and been estatelich of manere, 
And to been holden digne of reverence. 2 

But for to speaken of her conscience, 
She was so charitable and so pitous 
She wolde weep if that she saw a mouse 
Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bled. 
Of smale houndes had she that she fed 
With roasted flesh, and milk, and wsestel bread 
But sore wept she if one of them were dead, 
Or if men smote it with a yerde 3 smart ; 
And all was conscience, and tender heart. 



7. From Lydgatds " Testament" (supposed to have 
been written about 1450 4 ) : — 

During the tyme of this sesoun, Yer 5 , 

I mesne the sesoun of my yeerys greene, 

Gynning fro childhood, stretched up so fer 

To the yeerys accounted ful fifteene, 

B' experience, as it was weel seene, 

The gerissche sesoun straunge of condiciouns, 

Dispoosayd to many unbridlyd passiouns ; 



1 And she took pains. 2 Worthy of respect, 

3 Yard, stick. 

4 John Lydgate, a monk of St. Edmund's Bury, flourished 
about the year 1430. His muse was wonderfully prolific ; for 
as many as 250 poems have been attributed to him. Lydgate's 
style is diffusive, and exhibits but little imagination. He must 
have possessed an extraordinary facility in the art of verse- 
making. 

5 Spring season. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 317 

Voyd of resoun, yove to wilfulnesse, 

Fro ward to vertu, of thrift gafe litil hecde, 

Loth to lerne, loved no besynesse, 

Sauf pley or merthe, straunge to spelle or reade, 

Lihtly tournyng, wylde, and seelde sad, 

Weeping for nouhte, and anoun afFtir glad, &c. 



8. From Caxtoris Translation of Higderts " Poly- 
chronicon" (1482 1 ): — 

And here I make an ende of this lytel werke as 
nygh as I can fynde after the forme of the werk to 
fore made by Ranulph monk of Chestre. And where 
as ther is fawte, I beseche them that shal rede it to 
correcte it. For yf I coude haue founden moo storyes 
I wolde have sette in hit moo ; but the substaunce 
that I can fynde and knowe I haue shortly sette hem 
in this book, to thentente that such thynges as haue 
ben done syth the deth or ende of the sayde boke of 
Polycronycon shold be had in remembrance and not 
put in oblyuyon ne forgetynge ; prayenge all them 
that shall see this symple werke to pardone me of my 
symple and rude w^rytynge. Ended the second day 
of Juyll, the XXII yere of the regne of Kynge 
Edward the Fourth, and of the Incarnacioun of oure 
Lord a thousand four honderd foure score and tweyne. 



1 William Caxton, the first English printer, was born 
where in Kent, in the year 1412. He set up his prim 
at Westminster between the years 1474-1477; and from that 
time continued to print and translate till his death, which I 
place in 1491 or 1492. 



318 ENGLISH STYLE. 

9. From Sir Thomas Mores " Dialogue concerning 
Heresies" (1528 l ): — 

Some priest, to bring up a pilgrimage in his parishe, 
may devise some false felowe fayning himselfe to come 
seke a saint in his chyrch, and there sodeinly say, that 
he hath gotten hys syght. Then shall ye have the 
belles rong for a miracle. And the fonde folke of the 
countrey soon made foles. Than women commynge 
thither with theyr candels. And the Person byenge 
of some lame begger iii or iiii payre of their olde 
crutches, with xii pennes spent in men and women of 
wex, thrust thorowe divers places, some with arrowes, 
and some wyth rusty kny ves, will make his offerynges 
for one vij yere worth twise hys tythes. 

Thys is, quoth T, very trouth that suche thynges 
may be, and sometimes to be in dede. As I remem- 
ber me that I have hard my father tell of a begger, 
that in Kyng Henry his daies the sixt cam with his 
wife to Saint Albonis. And there was walking about 
the towne begging, a five or six dayes before the 
Kinges commynge thither, saienge that he was borne 
blinde, and never sawe in hys lyfe. And was warned 
in hys dreame, that he shoulde come out of Berwyke, 
where he said he had ever dwelled, to seke Saynt 
Albon, and that he had ben at his shryne, and had 

1 The English works of Sir Thomas More (1480-1555), the 
celebrated Chancellor of Henry VIII. , are the first entitled to 
the name of classical English prose. Among the most important 
are : " The Life and Reign of Edward V.," his " Dialogue con- 
cerning Heresies," and the letter he wrote to his wife after the 
burning of his house at Chelsea (1528). 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 319 

not bene holpen. And therefore he woulde go s< 
hym at some other place, for he had hard some 
sins he came that Sainct Albonys body shold be at 
Colon, and in dede such a contencion hath ther ben. 
But of troth, as I am surely informed, he lieth here 
at Saint Albonis, saving some reliques of him, which 
thei there shew shrined. But to tell you forth, whan 
the kyng was comen, and the towne full, sodaynlye 
thys blind man, at Saint Albonis shryne had his sight 
agayne, and a myracle solemply rongen, and Te Deum 
songen, so that nothyng was talked of in al the towne 
but this myracle, &c. 

10. A Sonnet, by Lord Surrey (about 1545 l )\ — 

Give place, ye lovers, here before, 

That spent your boasts and brags in vain ! 

My lady's beauty passeth more 

The best of yours, I dare well sayn, 

Than doth the sun the candle-light, 

Or brightest day the darkest night. 

And thereto had a troth as just 

As had Penelope the fair ; 
For what she saith, ye may it trust 

As it by writing sealed were : 
And virtues hath she many mo 
Than I with pen have skill to show. 



1 Thomas Howard, eldest son of the Duke of Norfoll 
the last victim of the tyranny of Henry VIIL, was born 
and beheaded on Tower Hill, 1547. His poetry is id 
and polished, but not remarkable for depth either of inl 
feeling. He was the first to introduce the Bonnet, and blank 
verse, into English poetry. 



320 ENGLISH STYLE. 

I could rehearse, if that I would, 
The whole effect of Nature's plaint 

When she had lost the perfit mould, 

The like to whom she ne'er could paint ; 

With wringing hands, how she did cry, 

And what she said, I know it, I. 

I know she swore, with raging mind, 

Her kingdom only set apart, 
There was no loss by law of kind 

That could have gone so near her heart ; 
And this was chiefly all her pain, — 
" She could not make the like again." 

Since Nature thus gave her the praise 
To be the chiefest work she wrought ; 

In faith, methink, some better ways 
On your behalf might well be sought, 

Than to compare, as ye have done, 

To match the candle with the sun. 

11. Extract from Latimer's third Sermon preached 
before Edward VL, at Westminster, 1549. 1 

(In the original spelling.) 

Syr, what forme of preachinge would you appoynt 
me to preache before a Kynge ? Wold you have me 
for to preache nothynge as concernyinge a Kynge in 
the Kynges sermon ? Have you any commission to 

1 Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, and the son of a 
farmer in Leicestershire, was born about the year 1472, and was 
burnt to death at the stake in 1555. His " Sermons," which 
were published at different times, are quaint and homely in 
expression, and familiar in illustration ; but they contain no 
evidence of any great literary power. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 321 

appoynt me what I shall preache ? Besydes tliys, I 
asked hym dyvers other questions, and he wold make 
no answere to none of them all. lie had nothyng to 
say. Then I turned me to the Kyng, and submitted 
myselfe to his Grace, and sayed I never thoughte my- 
selfe worthy, nor I never sued to be a preacher before 
youre Grace, but I was called to it, would be will- 
ing (if you mislyke me) to give place to my 
betters. For I graunt ther be a great many more 
worthy of the roume than I am. And if it be your 
Grace's pleasure so to allowe them for preachers, I 
could be content to bere their bokes after theym. 
But if your Grace allowe me for a preacher I would 
desyre your Grace to geve me leve to discharge my 
conscience. Geve me leve to frame my doctrine ac- 
cordyng to my audience. I had byne a very dolt to 
have preached so at the borders of your realm, as I 
preach before your Grace. And I thanke Almyghty 
God why ch hath alwayesbyne remedy that my sayinges 
were well accepted of the Kynge, for, like a gracious 
Lord he turned into another communicacyon. It is 
even as the Scripture sayeth, Cor Regis in manic 
Domini, the Lorde dyrected the King's hart, &c. 

The early part of the sixteenth century was distin- 
guished for learning and intellectual activity in 
England, and a considerable improvement in our 
language took place during the reign of Henry VI II. 
We find, towards the close of this reign, innumerable 
complaints from writers, of the large number of words 
now introduced into English from foreign sources. 
But these new words, which were then probably 
necessary for the expression of the increased energy 

Y 



322 ENGLISH STYLE. 

of the people, soon became assimilated with the na- 
tional tone of thought, and the English language was 
now fixed and consolidated. Whatever changes it may 
have undergone, either from the loss of obsolete words, 
or the introduction of new terms, it has, from this 
period, remained in the same state both as regards its 
idiomatic forms, and structural character. 

PERIOD OF MODERN ENGLISH. 
A.D. 1550—1850, &c. 

1. Extract from Sackville s " Mirror for Magistrates" 1 

1557. 

i 
In black all clad, there fell before my face 

A piteous wight, whom woe had all forwast ; 

Forth from her eyen, the crystal tears outbrast, 

And, sighing sore, her hands she wrong and fold, 

Tearing her hair, that ruth was to behold. 

Her body small, forwithered and forspent, 

As is the stalk with summer's drought opprest ; 

Her wealked face with woful tears besprent, 
Her colour pale, and, as it seemed her best, 
In woe and plaint, reposed was her rest ; 



1 Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, was born in 1536 at 
Buckhurst, in Sussex, and died in 1608. His works are : — the 
" Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex," afterwards called " Gor- 
boduc," and the " Induction," or Preface, to the " Mirror for 
Magistrates." The "Induction" is considered to possess great 
merit. The style is graphic in the portraiture of the allegorical 
personages introduced, and the language is stately and solemn. 
Spenser is said to have taken Sackville as a model on which to 
form his style. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 323 

And as the stone that drops of water wears, 
So dented were her cheeks with fall of tears. 

I stood aghast, beholding all her plight, 

Tween dread and dolour, so distrained in heart 

That, while niy knees upstarted with the sight, 
The tears outstreamed for sorrow of her smart ; 
But, when I saw no end that could apart 

The deadly dole which she so sore did make, 

With doleful voice, then thus to her I spake, &c. 

2. From Roger Ascharrfs iC Schoolmaster ; " — about 
1563. 1 

Learning teacheth more in one year than experience 
in twenty ; and learning teacheth safely when expe- 
rience maketh miserable than wise. He hazardeth 
sore that waxeth wise by experience. An unhappy 
master he is that is made cunning by many ship- 
wrecks ; a miserable merchant that is neither rich nor 
wise but after some bankrouts. It is costly wisdom 
that is bought by experience. We know by experi- 
ence itself that it is a marvelous pain, to find out but 
a short w^ay by long wandering. And surely, he that 
would prove wise by experience, he may be witty 
indeed, but even like a swift runner that runneth fast 



1 Roger Ascham was born in 1515, at Kirby Wiske, near 
North Allerton, in Yorkshire, and died December 30th, 156S. 
He was tutor to the Lady — afterwards Queen — Elizabeth. In 
1563, he was invited by Sir Richard Sackville to write M The 
Schoolmaster," a treatise on education, which he completed, but 
did not publish. Dr. Johnson says, that "The Schoolmaster" 
contains the best advice that was ever given for the study of 
languages. 



324 ENGLISH STYLE. 

out of his way, and upon the night, he knoweth not 
whither. And verily they be the fewest in number 
that be happy or wise by unlearned experience. 
And look well upon the former life of those few, 
whether your example be old or young, who, without 
learning, have gathered by long experience, a little 
wisdom, and some happiness ; and when you do con- 
sider what mischief they have committed, what 
dangers they have escaped (and yet twenty for one do 
perish in the adventure), then think well with your- 
self, whether ye would that your own son should 
come to wisdom and happiness by the way of such ex- 
perience or no. 

3. From. Sir Philip Sidney's (i Arcadia : " — about 

1580. 1 

There were hills which garnished their proud 
heights with stately trees ; humble valleys, whose 
base estate seemed comforted with the refreshing of 
silver rivers; meadows enamelled with all sorts of 
eye-pleasing flowers ; thickets, which being lined with 
most pleasant shade, were witnessed so to by the 
cheerful disposition of many well-tuned birds ; each 

1 Sir Philip Sidney was born, 1554, at Penshurst in Kent; and 
died of a wound received in the battle of Zutphen, 1586. His 
character has been regarded as a model of the English gentle- 
man of that age. His works display great brilliancy of imagi- 
nation, with a chasteness of sentiment well calculated to refine 
the taste of the times. The " Arcadia," his principal work, 
was never completed, nor was it published in his lifetime. He 
also wrote sonnets, songs, and various other miscellaneous 
pieces. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 325 

pasture stored with sheep feeding with sober security ; 
while the pretty lambs, with bleating oratory, craved 
the dam's comfort ; here a shepherd's boy piping, as 
though he should never be old ; there a young shep- 
herdess knitting and withal singing ; and it seemed 
that her voice comforted her hands to work, and her 
hands kept time to her voice music. 

4. From Spenser's Faerie Queene : — about 1590. 1 
(Adventure of Una with the Lion.) 

Yet she, most faithful lady, all this while 

Forsaken, woeful, solitary maid, 
Far from all people's praise, as in exile, 

In wilderness and wasteful deserts strayed, 

To seek her knight ; who, subtily betrayed 
Through that late vision which the enchanter wrought, 

Had her abandoned ; she, of nought afraid, 
Through woods and wasteness wide him daily sought, 
Yet wished tidings none of him unto her brought. 

One day, nigh weary of the irksome way, 

From her unhasty beast she did alight ; 
And on the grass her dainty limbs did lay, 

In secret shadow, far from all men's sight. 

From her fair head her fillet she undight, 
And laid her stole aside ; her angel's face 

As the great eye of Heaven, shine d bright, 
And made a sunshine in the shady place, 
Did never mortal eye behold such heavenly grace. 



1 Edmund Spenser, one of the four greatest poets of England, 
is generally classed with Chaucer, Shakspere, and Milton, lie 
was born in East Smithfield, London, in 1553, and died in King 
Street, Westminster, in 1599. The "Faerie Queene" is his 
great work. It is full of beauty and melody, and captivating 
by its chivalrous and moral tone. 

Y 3 



326 ENGLISH STYLE. 

It fortuned, out of the thickest wood, 

A ramping lion rushed, suddenly, 
Hunting, full greedy, after savage blood : 

Soon as the royal virgin he did spy, 

With gaping mouth at her ran greedily, 
To have at once devoured her tender corse. 

But to the prey when as he drew more nigh, 
His bloody rage assuaged with remorse, 
And, with the sight amazed, forgot his furious force. 

Instead thereof, he kissed her weary feet, 

And licked her lily hands with fawning tongue ; 
As he her wronged innocence did weet, — 

O, how can beauty master the most strong ! 

And simple truth subdue avenging wrong ! 
Whose yielded pride, and proud submission, 

Still dreading death, when she had marked long, 
Her heart ? gan melt in great compassion, 
And drizzling tears did shed for pure affection. 

" The lion, lord of every beast in field," 

Quoth she, " his princely puissance doth abate : 

And mighty proud to humble weak does yield, 
Forgetful of the hungry rage which late 
Him pricked, in pity of my sad estate : 

But he, my lion, and my noble lord, 
How does he find in cruel heart to hate 

Her that him loved, and ever most adored, 

As the God of my life ! why hath he me abhorred ! " 

Redounding tears did choke th' end of her plaint, 
Which softly echoed from the neighbour wood ; 

And, sad to see her sorrowful constraint, 
The kingly beast upon her gazing stood, 
With pity calmed down fell his angry mood. 

At last, in close heart shutting up her pain, 
Arose the virgin born of heavenly brood, 

And to her snowy palfrey got again 

To seek her strayed champion if she might attain. 






THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 327 

The lion would not leave her desolate, 

But with her went along, as a strong guard 

Of her chaste person, and a faithful mate 
Of her sad troubles and misfortunes hard : 
Still, when she slept, he kept both watch and ward ; 

And when she waked, he waited, diligent, 
With humble service to her will prepared ; 

From her fair eyes he took commandement, 

And ever by her looks conceived her intent. 



5. From Hooker's "Ecclesiastical Polity:" — about 
1600. 1 

{Church Music.') 

Touching musical harmony, whether by instrument 
or by voice, it being but of high and low sounds a due 
proportionable disposition, such notwithstanding is the 
force thereof, and so pleasing effects it hath in that 
very part of man which is most divine, that some have 
been thereby induced to think that the soul itself by 
nature is, or hath in it, harmony ; a thing which de- 
lighteth all ages, and beseemeth all states ; a thing as 
seasonable in grief as in joy ; as decent, being added 
unto actions of greatest weight and solemnity, as being 
used when most men most sequester themselves from 
action. The reason hereof is an admirable facility 

1 Richard Hooker, the illustrious author of " Ecclesiastical 
Polity," was born near Exeter in the year 1554, and died at 
j Bishopsbourne, in Kent, of which he held the living, in 1 600. 
* Four books of his great work were published in 1594, and a 
1 fifth in 1597. The remaining three were completed, but not 
\ published till after his death. Hooker's style is almost unrivalled 
i for sustained dignity of tone, at the same time that it is perfectly 
unaffected and idiomatic. 

Y 4 



328 ENGLISH STYLE. 

which music hath to express and represent to the 
mind, more inwardly than any other sensible mean, 
the very standing, rising, and falling, the very steps 
and inflections every way, the turns and varieties of 
all passions whereunto the mind is subject; yea, so to 
imitate them, that whether it resemble unto us the same 
state wherein our minds already are, or a clean con- 
trary, we are not more contentedly by the one con- 
firmed, than changed and led away by the other. In 
harmony, the very image and character even of 
virtue and vice is perceived, the mind delighted with 
their resemblances, and brought, by having them often 
iterated, into the tone of the things themselves. For 
which cause, there is nothing more contagious and 
pestilent than some kinds of harmony ; than some, 
nothing more strong and potent unto good. 

6. Extract from a letter of Sir Walter Raleigh to his 
wife, shortly before his execution: — about 1618. l 

You shall receive, my dear wife, my last words in 
these my last lines ; my love I send you that you may 
keep when I am dead, and my counsel, that you may 
remember it when I am no more. I would not, with 
my will, present you sorrows, dear Bess; let them 

1 Sir Walter Ealeigh was born, 1552, at Hayes Earm in 
Devonshire, and was executed in 1618. During the twelve 
years of his imprisonment he wrote most of his works, espe- 
cially his " History of the World," of which he finished only 
from the Creation to the Tall of the Macedonian Empire. The 
style of this work is lively and exciting, and shows the ardent 
and impetuous character of the author. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 329 

go to the grave with me, and be buried in the dust. 
And seeing that it is not the will of God, that I shall 
see you any more, bear my destruction patiently, and 
with a heart like yourself. 

First, I send you all the thanks which my heart can 
conceive, or my words express, for your many travails 
and cares for me, which though they have not taken 
effect as you wished, yet my debt to you is not the 
less ; but pay it I never shall in this world. 

Secondly, I beseech you, for the love you bear me 
living, that you do not hide yourself many days, but 
by your travails seek to help my miserable fortunes, 
and the right of your poor child ; your mourning can- 
not avail me, that am but dust. 

****** 

I can say no more, and death calleth me away. The 
everlasting God, powerful, infinite, and inscrutable 
God Almighty, who is goodness itself, the true light 
and life, keep you and yours, and have mercy upon 
and forgive my persecutors and false accusers, and 
send us to meet in His glorious kingdom. My dear 
wife, farewell ; bless my boy, pray for me, and let my 
true God hold you both in his arms. 

7. From Burtons " Anatomy of Melancholy : " — 
about 1620. 1 

{Melancholy and Contemplation.') 

Voluntary solitariness is that which is familiar 
with melancholy, and gently brings on, like a siren, a 

1 Robert Burton, the author of the " Anatomy of Melan- 
choly," was born at Lindley, in Leicestershire, in 1576 ; and died 



330 ENGLISH STYLE. 

shooing-horn, or some sphinx to this irrevocable gulf : 
a primary cause, Piso calls it : most pleasant it 'is at 
first, to such as are melancholy given, to lie in bed 
whole days, and keep their chambers ; to walk alone 
in solitary grove, betwixt wood and water, by a brook 
side ; to meditate upon some delightsome and pleasant 
subject which shall affect them most ; " amabilis in- 
sania" and " mentis gratissimus error." A most 
incomparable delight it is so to melancholise, and 
build castles in the air ; to go smiling to themselves, 
acting an infinite variety of parts, which they sup- 
pose and strongly imagine they represent, or that they 
see acted or done. " Blanda quidem ab initio" 
[pleasant, indeed, it is, at first,] saith Lemnius, to 
conceive and meditate of such pleasant things some- 
times, present, past, or to come, as Rhasis speaks. So 
delightsome these toys are at first, they could spend 
whole days and nights without sleep, even whole 
years alone, in such contemplations and fantastical 
meditations, which are like unto dreams ; and they 
will hardly be drawn from them, or willingly inter- 
rupt. So pleasant their vain conceits are, that they 
hinder their ordinary tasks, and necessary business ; 
they cannot address themselves to them, or almost to 
any study or employment: these fantastical and 
bewitching thoughts so covertly, so feelingly, so ur- 
gently, so continually, set upon, creep in, insinuate, 
possess, overcome, distract, and detain them; they 



at Christchurch, 1640. His book was published in 1621. It 
displays a vast extent of reading, and is crowded with quota- 
tions, many of which have but little connection with the subject. 
The book is very amusing, and full of various information. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 331 

cannot, I say, go about their more necessary business, 
stave* off, or extricate themselves, but are ever musing, 
melancholising, and carried along, as he (they say) 
that is led round about an heath with a puck in the 
night, &c. 

8. From Hobbes' s " Treatise on Human Nature:" — 
about 1640. 1 

(Pity and Indignation.') 

Pity is imagination or fiction of future calamity 
to ourselves, proceeding from the sense of another 
man's calamity. But when it lighteth on such as we 
think have not deserved the same, the compassion is 
greater, because then there appeareth more probability 
that the same may happen to us ; for the evil that 
happeneth to an innocent man may happen to every 
man. But when we see a man suffer for great crimes 
which we cannot easily think will fall upon ourselves, 
the pity is the less, and therefore men are apt to pity 
those whom they love ; for whom they love they think 
worthy of good, and therefore not worthy of calamity. 
Thence it is also, that men pity the vices of some 
persons, at the first sight only, out of love to their 

1 Thomas Hobbes, the son of a Protestant clergyman of 
Malmesbury, was born in that town 1588. He began to write 
in 1628. His principal works are — a "Translation of the 
Greek Historian Thucydides," a " Treatise on Human Nature," 
"Leviathan," "Translations of the Iliad and Odyssey," and 
"Behemoth, or the Causes of the Civil Wars in England." 
Hobbes is remarkable for the perspicuity and correctness of his 
style. He is deficient in imagination and poetical feeling ; but 
in logical precision and force of expression he is unrivalled. 



332 ENGLISH STYLE. 

aspect. The contrary of pity is hardness of heart, 
proceeding either from slowness of imagination, or 
some extreme great opinion of their own exemption 
from the like calamity, or from hatred of all or most 
men. 

Indignation is that grief which consisteth in the 
conception of good success happening to them whom 
they think unworthy thereof. Seeing, therefore, men 
think all those unworthy whom they hate, they think 
them not only unworthy of the good fortune they 
have, but also of their own virtues. And of all the 
passions of the mind, these two, indignation and pity, 
are most raised and increased by eloquence ; for the 
aggravation of the calamity, and extenuation of the 
fault, augmenteth pity ; and the extenuation of the 
worth of the person, together with the magnifying of 
his success, which are the parts of an orator, are able 
to turn these two passions into fury. 

9. From Jeremy Taylor s "Holy Living and Holy 
Dying:" — about 1650. 1 

(On Prayer.) 

I have seen a lark rising from his bed of grass, 
and soaring upwards, singing as he rises, and hopes 

1 Jeremy Taylor, the " Spenser of English prose," was born 
at Cambridge, in the year 1613, and died at Lisburn, 1667. The 
best known of his works are — "Holy Living and Holy Dying," 
" Sermons," and the " Golden Grove." Beauty of expression is 
the characteristic of Taylor's style. His writings are pervaded 
by poetical feeling, and a tone of unaffected piety and tender- 
ness. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 333 

to get to heaven, and climb above the clouds ; but the 
poor bird was beaten back by the loud sighing of an 
eastern wind, and his motion made irregular and in- 
constant, descending more at every breath of the 
tempest than it could recover by the libration and 
frequent weighing of his wings, till the little creature 
1 was forced to sit down and pant, and stay till the 
1 storm was over ; and then it made a prosperous flight, 
; and did rise and sing as if it had learned music and 
' motion from an angel, as he passed sometimes through 
the air about his ministries here below. So is the 
prayer of a good man : when his affairs have required 
business, and his business was matter of discipline, 
and his discipline was to pass upon a sinning person, 
or had a design of charity, his duty met with the in- 
firmities of a man, and anger was its instrument ; and 
the instrument became stronger than its prime agent, 
and raised a tempest, and overruled the man ; and 
then his prayer was broken, and his thoughts were 
troubled, and his words went up towards a cloud; and 
his thoughts pulled them back again, and made them 
without intention ; and the good man sighs for his 
infirmity, but must be content to lose that prayer, and 
he must recover it when his anger is removed, and 
his spirit is becalmed, made even as the brow of Jesus, 
and smooth like the heart of God ; and then it ascends 
to heaven upon the wings of the holy clove, and dwells 
with God, till it returns, like the useful bee, loaden 
with a blessing and the dew of heaven. 






334 ENGLISH STYLE. 

10. From Lord Clarendon's "History of the Rebel- 
lion:"— about 1670. 1 

(Reception of the Liturgy at Edinburgh, 1637.) 

On the Sunday morning appointed for the work, 
the Chancellor of Scotland, and others of the Council, 
being present in the Cathedral church, the dean began 
to read the Liturgy, which he had no sooner entered 
upon, but a noise and clamour was raised throughout 
the church, that no words could be heard distinctly ; 
and then a shower of stones and sticks and cudgels 
were thrown at the dean's head. The bishop went 
up into the pulpit, and from thence put them in mind 
of the sacredness of the place, of their duty to God 
and the king ; but he found no more reverence, nor / 
was the clamour and disorder less than before. The 
chancellor, from his seat, commanded the provost and 
magistrates of the city to descend from the gallery in 
which they sat, and by their authority to suppress the 
riot ; which, at last, with great difficulty they did, by 
driving the rudest of those who made the disturbance 
out of the church, and shutting the doors, which gave 
the dean an opportunity to proceed in the reading of 
the Liturgy, that was not at all attended or hearkened 
to by those who remained within the church ; and if 
it had, they who were turned out continued their bar- 

1 Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, was born at Dinton, in 
Wiltshire, in 1608, and died at Rouen in 1674. He was the 
author of the " History of the Great Rebellion," which was not, 
however, published till 1702. The style is incorrect and un- 
grammatical, better adapted to conversation than to writing ; 
and yet abounding in matter, and inexhaustibly eloquent. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 335 

barous noise, broke the windows, and endeavoured to 
break down the doors, so that it was not possible for 
any to follow their devotions, &c. 

1 1 . From Burnet's " History of My Own Times" 
about 1690. 1 

{Character of William III.) 

Thus lived and died William III. King of Great 
Britain, and Prince of Orange. He had a thin and 
weak body, was brown-haired, and of a clear and 
delicate constitution. He had a Roman-eagle nose, 
bright and sparkling eyes, a large front, and a counte- 
nance composed to gravity and authority. All his senses 
were critical and exquisite. He was always asthma- 
tical, and the dregs of the small-pox falling on his 
lungs, he had a constant deep cough. His behaviour 
was solemn and serious, seldom cheerful, and but with 
■ a few. He spoke little, and very slowly, and most 
commonly with a disgusting dryness, which was his 
* character at all times, except in a day of battle ; for 
then he was all fire, though without passion, he was 
then everywhere, and looked to everything. He had 
; no great advantage from his education. De Witt's 
discourses were of great use to him ; and he, being 
apprehensive of the observation of those who were 

1 Gilbert Burnet, afterwards Bishop of Salisbury, was born at 
Edinburgh, 1643, and died at Cierkenwell, in London, 1715. As 
many as 145 distinct writings are attributed to him. His prin- 
cipal works are — "The History of the Reformation," ami the 
" History of his own Times." His diction is clear and unpre- 
tending ; the matter intelligible, and manner lively j but the 
style is totally deficient in all the higher qualities. 



336 ENGLISH STYLE. 

looking narrowly into everything he said or did, had 
brought himself under a habitual caution that he could 
never shake off; though in another scene it proved as 
hurtful as it was then necessary to his affairs. He 
spoke Dutch, French, English, and German equally 
well, and understood the Latin, Spanish, and Italian, 
so that he was well fitted to command armies composed 
of several nations. He had a memory that amazed all 
about him, for it never failed him. He was an exact 
observer of men and things. His strength lay rather 
in a true discerning and a sound judgement, than in 
imagination or invention. His designs were always 
great and good. But it was thought he trusted too 
much to that, and that he did not descend enough to 
the humours of the people, to make himself and his 
notions more acceptable to them, &c. 

12. From Dry dens Preface to the Fables : — 
1700. 1 

(Contrast between Chaucer and Cowley.) 

In the first place, as he (Chaucer) is the Father of 
English poetry, so I hold him in the same degree of 
veneration as the Grecians held Homer, or the Romans 
Virgil. He is a perpetual fountain of good sense ; 
learned in all sciences ; and therefore speaks properly 

1 John Dryden was born in Northamptonshire, in 1632, and 
died 1700. He is known chiefly as a poet. He was the author 
of " Annus Mirabilis ; " translations from Chaucer, Boccaccio, 
Ovid, Lucretius, Horace, and Virgil ; " Alexander's Feast ; " 
•' The Hind and the Panther ; " numerous Dramas ; " Absalom 
and Achitophel;" Fables, &c. -His style is nervous and 
forcible, not marked by elegance or refinement, but unrivalled 
in power, vigour, and eloquence. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 337 

on all subjects. As he knew what to say, so he knows 
also when to leave off ; a continence which is practised 
by few writers, and scarcely by any of the ancients, 
excepting Virgil and Horace. One of our late poets 
(Cowley) is sunk in his reputation because he could 
never forego any conceit which came in his way ; but 
swept, like a drag net* great and small. There was 
plenty enough, but the dishes were ill-sorted ; whole 
pyramids of sweatmeats for boys and women, but little 
of solid meat for men. All this proceeded not from 
any want of knowledge, but of judgment. Neither 
did he want that in discerning the beauties and faults 
of other poets, but only indulged himself in the luxury 
of writing ; and perhaps knew it was a fault, but 
hoped the reader would not find it. For this reason, 
though he must always be thought a great poet, he is 
no longer esteemed a good writer ; and for ten impres- 
sions which his works have had in so many successive 
years, yet, at present, a hundred books are scarcely 
purchased once a twelvemonth. 

13. Addison? s "Panegyric upon Nonsense" — from the 
Whig Examiner. 1710. 1 

Hudibras has defined nonsense (as Cowley does wit) 
by negatives. " Nonsense,'' says he, "is that which is 

1 Joseph Addison was born in 1672, at Milston, near Ames- 
bury, Wiltshire, and died at Holland House, Kensington, 1719. 
His chief works are — "The Campaign," the tragedy of Cato ; 
and his Essays on various subjects in the Tatler, Spectator, and 
Guardian. He is especially celebrated as a prose writer. For 
delicacy of feeling, liveliness of fancy, and exquisite humour, 
Addison has never been surpassed. 

z 



338 ENGLISH STYLE. 

neither true nor false." These two great properties of 
nonsense, which are always essential to it, give it such 
a peculiar advantage over all other writing, that it is 
incapable of being either answered or contradicted. 
It stands on its own basis, like a rock of adamant, 
secured by its natural situation against all conquests or 
attacks. There is no one place about it weaker than 
another, to favour an enemy in his approaches. The 
major and the minor are of equal strength. Its ques- 
tions admit of no reply, and its assertions are not to 
be invalidated. A man may as well hope to distin- 
guish colours in the midst of darkness as to find out 
what to approve and disapprove in nonsense : you 
may as well assault an army that is buried in entrench- 
ments. If it affirms anything, you cannot lay hold of 
it ; or if it denies, you cannot confute it. In a word, 
there are greater depths and obscurities, greater intri- 
cacies and perplexities, in an elaborate and well-writ- 
ten piece of nonsense than in the most abstruse and 
profound tract of school-divinity. 

14. From Swift, "Meditation on a Broomstick ;" — 
1725. 1 

This single stick, which you now behold inglori- 
ously lying in that neglected corner, I once knew in 
a flourishing state in a forest ; it was full of sap, full 
of leaves, and full of boughs ; it is now, at best, but 






1 Jonathan Swift was born in Dublin, 1667, and died in 1745. 
His best known works are — the " Tale of a Tub ; " " Drapier's 
Letters;" and " Gulliver's Travels." His prose style is plain, 
simple, and perspicuous ; and he is, beyond all other writers, 
distinguished for originality. 






THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 339 

the reverse of what it was, a tree turned upside down, 
the branches on the earth, and the root in the air ; it 
is now handled by every dirty wench, condemned to 
do her drudgery, and by a capricious kind of fate, 
destined to make her things clean, and be nasty in 
itself; at length worn out to the stumps in the service 
of the maids, it is either thrown out of doors, or con- 
demned to the last use of kindling a fire. When I 
beheld this, I sighed, and said within myself, surely 
mortal man is a broomstick ! Nature sent him into 

j the world strong and lusty, in a thriving condition, 
wearing his own hair on his head, the proper branches 
of this reasonable vegetable, until the axe of intemper- 

' ance has lopped off his green boughs, and left him a 
withered trunk ; he then flies to art, and puts on a 

! periwig, valuing himself upon an unnatural bundle of 
hairs, all covered with powder, that never grew on 
his head ; but now, should this our broomstick pre- 

' tend to enter the scene proud of those birchen spoils it 
never bore, and all covered with dust, though the 
sweepings of the finest lady's chamber, we should be 
apt to ridicule and despise its vanity. Partial judges 
that we are of our own excellences, and other men's 
defaults ! 

i 

15. From Dr. Johnsons Preface to his " English 

Dictionary ;" — 1755. 1 

It is the fate of those who toil at the lower employ- 
ments of life to be rather driven by the fear of evil 

1 Samuel Johnson was born at Lichfield in 1709, and died in 
1784, at his house in Bolt Court, Fleet Street, His prose works 
are all short pieces : -— " The Kamhler," and " Idler ; " an edition 

z 2 



340 ENGLISH STYLE. 

than attracted by the prospects of good ; to be ex- 
posed to censure without hope of praise ; to be dis- 
graced by miscarriage, or punished for neglect where 
success would have been without applause, and dili- 
gence without reward. 

Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of 
dictionaries ; whom mankind have considered not as 
the pupil, but the slave of science, the pioneer of 
literature, doomed only to remove the rubbish and 
clear obstructions from the paths through which 
learning and genius press forward to conquest and 
glory, without bestowing a smile on the humble 
drudge that facilitates their progress. Every other 
author may aspire to praise ; the lexicographer can 
only hope to escape reproach, and even this negative 
recompense has been yet granted to very few. 

I have, notwithstanding this discouragement, at- 
tempted a Dictionary of the English language, which, 
while it was employed in the cultivation of every 
species of literature, has itself been hitherto neglected ; 
suffered to spread, under the direction of chance, into 
wild exuberance ; resigned to the tyranny of time and 
fashion ; and exposed to the corruptions of ignorance, 
and caprices of innovation. 

No book was ever turned from one language into 
another without imparting something of its native 
idiom ; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive 
innovation ; single words may enter by thousands, and 



of Shakspeare, with a preface ; " Journey to the Hebrides ; " 
" Lives of the Poets ; " " Rasselas." His general style is pompous, 
bombastic, heavy, and artificial. He is too fond of words of 
Latin derivation, to the exclusion of those of Saxon origin. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 341 

the fabric of the tongue continue the same ; but new 
phraseology changes much at once ; it alters not the 
single stones of the building, but the order of the columns. 
If an academy should be established for the cultiva- 
tion of our style — which I, who can never wish to see 
dependence multiplied, hope the spirit of English 
liberty will hinder or destroy — let them, instead of 
compiling grammars and dictionaries, endeavour, with 
all their influence, to stop the license of translators, 
whose idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to pro- 
, ceed, will reduce us to babble a dialect of France, &c. 

16. From Burke's Speech on the case of the Nabob 
of Arcot: — 178o. 1 

When at length Hyder Ali found that he had to do 
with men who would either sign no convention, or 
: whom no treaty and no signature could bind, and who 
were the determined enemies of human intercourse 
itself, he decreed to make the country possessed by 
these incorrigible and predestinated criminals a me- 
morable example to mankind. He resolved, in the 
gloomy recess of a mind capacious of such things, to 
leave the whole Carnatic an everlasting monument 
of vengeance, and to put perpetual desolation as a 

1 Edmund Burke, our first, and still our greatest writer on 
the philosophy of politics, was horn in Dublin, 1 730, and died 
at Beaconsfield, in 1797. His principal works are — rt A Vindi- 
cation of Natural Society;" an "Essay on the Sublime and 
Beautiful ; " " The Annual Register ;" " Reflections on the French 
Kevolution ; " and various Speeches made in the House of Com- 
mons. His style is lucid and fervent, and his works are preg- 
| nant with philosophical reflection. 

z 3 



342 ENGLISH STYLE. 

barrier between him and those against whom the faith 
which holds the moral element of the world together 
was no protection. He became at length so confident 
of his force, so collected in his might, that he made 
no secret whatever of his dreadful resolution. Having 
terminated his disputes with every enemy, and every 
rival, who buried their mutual animosities in their 
common detestation against the creditors of the Nabob 
of Arcot, he drew from every quarter whatever a 
savage ferocity could add to his new rudiments in the 
arts of destruction ; and, compounding all the ma- 
terials of fury, havoc, and desolation into one black 
cloud, he hung for a while on the declivities of the 
mountains. While the authors of all these evils were 
idly and stupidly gazing on this menacing meteor, 
which blackened all their horizon, it suddenly burst, 
and poured down the whole of its contents upon the 
plains of the Carnatic. Then ensued a scene of woe, 
the like of which no eye had seen, no heart conceived, 
and which no tongue can adequately tell. All the 
horrors of woe before known or heard of were mercy 
to that new havoc. A storm of universal fire blasted 
every field, consumed every house, destroyed every 
temple. The miserable inhabitants, flying from their 
flaming villages, in part were slaughtered ; others, 
without regard to sex, to age, to the respect of rank, 
or sacredness of function, fathers torn from children, 
husbands from wives, enveloped in a whirlwind of 
cavalry, and amidst the goading spears of drivers, and 
the trampling of pursuing horses, were swept into 
captivity in an unknown and hostile land. Those 
who were able to evade this tempest fled to the walled 
cities. But, escaping from fire, sword^ and exile, 
they fell into the jaws of famine. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 343 

17. From Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire:" — 1787. l 

The fame of Julius the Second, Leo the Tenth, and 
Sextus the Fifth is accompanied by the superior merit 
of Bramante and Fontana, of Raphael and Michael 
Angelo : and the same munificence which had been 
displayed in palaces and temples was directed with 
equal zeal to revive and emulate the labours of anti- 
quity. Prostrate obelisks were raised from the ground, 
and erected in the most conspicuous places ; of the 
eleven aqueducts of the Caesars and consuls, three 
were restored ; the artificial rivers were conducted 
over a long series of old or of new arches to discharge 
into marble basins a flood of salubrious and refreshing 
waters ; and the spectator, impatient to ascend the 
steps of St. Peter's, is detained by a column of 
Egyptian granite which rises between two lofty and 
perpetual fountains to the height of one hundred and 
twenty feet. The map, the description, the monu- 
ments of ancient Rome have been elucidated by the 
diligence of the antiquarian and the student ; and the 
footsteps of heroes, the relics, not of superstition, but 
of empire, are devoutly visited by a new race of pil- 



1 Edward Gibbon, the historian, was born at Putney, in 
Surrey, in 1737, and died in London, 1794. His great work. 
the "Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire," was completed 
in 1788. There is an imposing splendour in the style of Gibbon 
which is in strict keeping with the dignity of his subject. He is 
somewhat artificial in the structure of his sentences, and occa- 
sionally borders on the pompous. 

z 4 



344 ENGLISH STYLE. 

grims from the remote, and once savage countries 
of the north. Of these pilgrims, and of every 
reader, the attention will be excited by a History 
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ; the 
greatest, perhaps, and most awful scene in the history 
of mankind. The various causes and progressive 
effects are connected with many of the events most in- 
teresting in human annals : the artful policy of the 
Cassars, who long maintained the name and image of 
a free republic ; the disorders of military despotism ; 
the rise, establishment, and sects of Christianity ; the 
foundation of Constantinople ; the division of the 
monarchy ; the invasion and settlements of the bar- 
barians of Germany and Scythia ; the institutions of 
the civil law ; the character and religion of Mahomet ; 
the temporal sovereignty of the popes ; the restoration 
and decay of the Western Empire of Charlemagne ; 
the crusades of the Latins in the East ; the conquests 
of the Saracens and Turks ; the ruin of the Greek 
Empire ; the state and revolutions of Rome in the 
middle age. The historian may applaud the impor- 
tance and variety of his suject ; but while he is con- 
scious of his own imperfections, he must often excuse 
the deficiency of his materials. It was among the 
ruins of the Capitol that I first conceived the idea of a 
work which has amused and exercised near twenty 
years of my life, and which, however inadequate to 
my own wishes, I finally deliver to the curiosity and 
candour of the public. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 34l 



18. From the Preface to Roscoe's "Life of Lorenzo 
de' Medici: — 1795. 1 

The motives which have encouraged me to per- 
severe in this undertaking, amidst numerous avocations 
and duties which connect me with society by almost 
every tie, have been a high admiration of the charac- 
ter of Lorenzo de' Medici, the singular pleasure which 
I have enjoyed in tracing his history, and the earnest 
desire which I feel to place him in that rank in the 
estimation of my countrymen to which he is so emi- 
nently entitled. 

I am not, however, arrogant enough to suppose that 
I have been able to do justice to so extensive and diver- 
sified a subject. Precluded by more serious and in- 
dispensable avocations from devoting to it a continued 
attention, I am apprehensive that facts of importance 
may have either have escaped my diligence, or may be 
imperfectly related. The difficulties attending a criti- 
cal examination of works of taste written in a foreign 
language, contribute to render me diffident of the 
success of my labours. In the few attempts to trans- 
late the poetical pieces of Lorenzo and his contem- 
poraries, I must regret my inability to do them more 
complete justice ; an inability of which I am fully sen- 
sible, but for which I do not mean to trouble my 
reader with any further apology. Such as it is, I 
submit this performance to the judgment of the pub- 
lic ; ready to acknowledge, though not pleased to 

1 William Eoscoe, author of the "Lives of Lorenzo de' Medici" 
and " Leo X.,"was born near Liverpool, in 1753, and died 1S31. 
His style is pleasing and fluent, though here and there diffusive. 



346 ENGLISH STYLE. 

reflect, that the disadvantages under which an author 
labours are no excuse for the imperfections of his 
work. 

19. From Sir Walter Scotfs « Waverley :"— 1814. 1 

There is no European nation which, within the 
course of half a century, or little more, has undergone 
so complete a change as this kingdom of Scotland. The 
effects of the insurrection of 1745, — the destruction 
of the patriarchal power of the Highland chiefs, — the 
abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Lowland 
nobility and barons, — the total eradication of the 
Jacobite party, which, averse to intermingle with the 
English, or adopt their customs, long contined to pride 
themselves upon maintaining ancient Scottish manners 
and customs — commenced this innovation. The 
gradual influx of wealth and extension of commerce 
have since united to render the present people of Scot- 
land a class of beings as different from their grand- 
fathers, as the existing English are from those of 
Queen Elizabeth's time. The political and economi- 
cal effects of these changes have been traced by Lord 
Selkirk with great precision and accuracy. But the 
change, though steadily and rapidly progressive, has, 
nevertheless, been gradual ; and, like those who drift 
down the stream of a deep and smooth river, we are 
not aware of the progress we have made until we fix 

1 Walter Scott was bora in Edinburgh, August 15th, 1771, 
and died at Abbotsford, September 21st, 1832. The prose works 
for which he is so justly celebrated are the " Waverley Novels." 
His style is essentially narrative. He shines in the picturesque 
and humorous, and has a graphic power of delineating character. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 347 

our eye on the now distant point from which we have 
been drifted. Such of the present generation as can 
recollect the last twenty or twenty-five years of the 
eighteenth century, will be fully sensible of the truth 
of this statement ; especially if their acquaintance and 
connections lay among those who, in my younger time, 
were facetiously called " folks of the old leaven," who 
still cherished a lingering, though hopeless, attachment 
to the House of Stewart. This race has now almost 
entirely vanished from the land, and with it doubtless 
much absurd political prejudice ; but also many living 
examples of singular and disinterested attachment to 
the principles of loyalty which they received from 
their fathers, and of old Scottish faith, hospitality, 
worth, and honour. 

20. From Southey's " Naval History of England:" — 
about 1830. 1 

The next day the Armada was seen " with lofty 
turrets, like castles, in front like a half-moon ; the 
wings thereof spreading out about the length of seven 
miles, sailing very slowly, though with full sails, the 
winds," says Camden," being,as it were, weary with waft- 

1 Robert Southey was born at Bristol, in 1774, and died at 
Keswick in 1843. His prose writings are very numerous. The 
most important are the " Lives of Nelson and Wesley ; " the 
" History of the Peninsular War," and the " Naval History of 
England ; " with many articles on general literature contributed 
to the Quarterly Review. Southey's style is copious and fluent ; 
not very brilliant, but vigorous and firm, clear and smooth ; not 
wanting in dignity, yet easy and idiomatic. In a word, one 
that deserves to be studied as a model by all who desire to attain 
a tine style of writing. 



348 ENGLISH STYLE. 

ing them, and the ocean groaning under their weight." 
The intention of surprising the fleet in harbour 
being frustrated, they passed Plymouth, the English 
willingly suffering them to pass, that they might chase 
them in the rear with a foreright wind. And on the 
morrow, the Lord Admiral sending the " Defiance " 
pinnace forward, denounced war, by discharging her 
ordnance, and presently his own ship, the "Ark 
Royal," thundered thick and furiously upon what he 
supposed to be the general's ship, but it proved to be 
the vice-admiral's, Alonso de Leyva's. Soon after 
Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher played stoutly with 
their ordnance upon the rear of the enemy, where 
Recalde, the admiral, commanded ; that officer en- 
deavoured to prevent his ships from flying to the 
main fleet till his own ship was rendered nearly 
unserviceable, and he was then fain, 'with much ado,' 
to hasten thither himself. " The duque then gathered 
together his fleet, which was scattered this way and 
that, and hoisting more sail, held on his way with 
what speed he could. Neither could he do any other, 
seeing both the wind favoured the English, and their 
ships w T ould turn about w r ith incredible celerity which 
way soever they pleased to charge, wind, and back 
about again." The Spaniards then felt a cause of 
weakness in their excessive strength, their great ships 
being powerful to defend, but not to offend, to stand 
but not to move, and therefore far unfit for fight in 
those narrow seas ; their enemies nimble, and ready 
at all times to annoy them, and as apt to escape harm 
themselves, by being low-built and easily shot over. 
Therefore they gathered themselves close in form of a 
half-moon, and slackened sail, that their whole fleet 
might keep together. After a smart fight in which he 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 349 

had injured the enemy much, and suffered little or no 
hurt himself. Lord Effingham gave over the action, 
because forty of his ships were not yet come up, 
having scarcely, indeed, got out of the haven. 

21. From Macaulay's " Essay on the Earl of 
Chatham:' 1844. 

The Duke of Richmond had given notice of an 
Address to the Throne against the further prosecu- 
tion of hostilities with America. Chatham had, during 
some time, absented himself from Parliament, in con- 
sequence of his growing infirmities. He determined 
to appear in his place on this occasion, and to declare 
that his opinions were decidedly at variance with 
those of the Rockingham party. He was in a state 
of great excitement. His medical attendants were 
uneasy, and strongly advised him to calm himself, and 
remain at home. But he was not to be controlled. 
His son William, and his son-in-law, Lord Mahon. 
accompanied him to Westminster. He rested himself 
in the Chancellor's room till the debate commenced, 
and then, leaning on his two young relations, limped 
to his seat. The slightest particulars of that day 
were remembered, and have been carefully recorded. 
He bow r ed, it was remarked, with great courtliness to 
those peers who rose to make way for him and his 
supporters. His crutch was in his hand. He wore, 
as was his fashion, a rich velvet coat. His legs were 
swathed in flannel. His wig was so large and his 
face so emaciated, that none of his features could be 
discerned, except the high curve of his nose, and his 
eyes, which still retained a gleam of the old tire. 

When the Duke of Richmond had spoken, Chatham 



350 ENGLISH STYLE. 

rose. For some time his voice was inaudible. At 
length his tones became distinct and his action ani- 
mated. Here and there his hearers caught a thought 
or an expression which reminded them of William 
Pitt. But it was clear that he was not himself. He 
lost the thread of his discourse, hesitated, repeated 
the same words several times, and was so confused 
that, in speaking of the Act of Settlement, he could 
not recall the name of the Electress Sophia. The 
House listened in solemn silence, and with the 
aspect of profound respect and compassion. The still- 
ness was so deep that the dropping of a handkerchief 
would have been heard. The Duke of Richmond 
replied with great tenderness and courtesy ; but while 
he spoke the old man was observed to be restless and 
irritable. The Duke sat down. Chatham stood up 
again, pressed his hand on his breast, and sank down 
in an apoplectic fit. Three or four lords who sat 
near him caught him in his fall. The House broke 
up in confusion. The dying man was carried to the 
residence of one of the officers of Parliament^ and was 
so far restored as to be able to bear a journey to 
Hayes. At Hayes, after lingering a few weeks, he 
expired in his seventieth year. His bed was watched 
to the last with anxious tenderness by his wife and 
children ; and he well deserved their care. Too often 
haughty and wayward to others, to them he had been 
almost effeminately kind. He had through life been 
dreaded by his political opponents, and regarded with 
more awe than love even by his political associates. 
But no fear seems to have mingled with the affection 
which his fondness, constantly overflowing in a thou- 
sand endearing forms, had inspired in the little circle 
at Hayes. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 351 



THE NATURE AND GENIUS OF THE ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 

We have already seen that English is a composite 
language, i. e., derived from many sources. But writers 
are not agreed on the exact proportion of its elements. 
Thus, out of one hundred parts Dean Trench would 
give sixty to Saxon, thirty to Latin (and Latin- 
French), five to Greek, and five to all other sources. 1 
Mr. Shaw considers five-eighths of the language to be 
of Saxon origin ; adding that in our most idiomatic 
writers (as DeFoe) about nine-tenths of the words are 
Saxon, and in our least idiomatic (as Gibbon) two- 
thirds are Saxon. 2 Professor Gabler tells us that 
there are about 53,000 words in the English language, 
of which 3820 may be considered primitives. Of these, 
some 2500 (2513) are derived from the Germanic, 
and 1250 from the classic stock. 3 

From all these calculations, we may pretty safely 
arrive at the conclusion that at least three-fourths of 
the present English are still Saxon ; and this may 
sufficiently prove the innate strength of the Germanic 
part of the language, which has for many centuries so 
firmly resisted all the influences of foreign invasion 
and internal oppression, as still to exhibit a consider- 
able preponderance over all the other elements. 

This triumph of the Saxon over the French or 
Latin portion of our language may be also illustrated 

1 " English, Past and Present," p. 11. 

2 " Outlines of English Literature," p. 27. 

3 " Classical Museum," vol. vi. p. 1 44. 



352 ENGLISH STYLE. 

by the well-known fact that, though it is easy enough 
to compose long sentences in English, every word of 
which shall be Anglo-Saxon ; it is impossible to write 
the shortest proposition, using only Latin or French 
words, in which an Anglo-Saxon element, or at least 
grammatical inflection, will not appear : for ex- 
ample : — "I rode in the highway betwixt TopclifF upon 
Swale and Boroughbridge, the way being somewhat 
trodden afore by w r ayfaring men ; the fields on both 
sides were flat, and lay almost yard deep with snow ; 
the night before had been a little frosty, so that the 
snow was hard/' Here, literally, every word is of 
Anglo-Saxon origin; and it would be easy to write 
hundreds of sentences of the same materials, provided 
that the subject were some ordinary occurrence, and 
not of a scientific or moral nature. 

On the other hand, here is a short sentence in which 
every word is of Latin origin: — "Avarice produces 
misery." Now r , notwithstanding the Latin derivation 
of the words, one letter (the s in " produces ") is suffi- 
cient to prove the character of the language to be 
Teutonic, and not Romanz. 1 

It cannot, however, be denied, that the Saxon 
character of our language, both in its words and in- 
flections, is gradually, though slowly, disappearing. 
We may take it for granted, that any verb introduced 
into English will, in future, form its past tense indica- 
tive by the addition of d or ed (as : amuse amused) ; 
and not by a change or modification of the vowel- 
sound (as, run, ran) ; thus adopting the French 
rather than the Germanic principle. In the same 
way, all plurals of nouns will, no doubt, for the future 
1 See Max Miiller's " Survey o c Languages," p. 7. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 353 

be formed by the addition of the letter s (as page, 
pages), and not by modifying the internal vowel (as 
foot, feet). 

Having so far ascertained the proportion which 
Anglo-Saxon bears to the whole language, it will be 
now expedient to consider those classes of ideas in 
which the elements of English are principally found. 
Here, however, the rule will be seldom without ex- 
ceptions, as may be readily understood when we con- 
sider the mixed nature of the language, the long 
period during which its elementary parts have been 
i amalgamated, and the various influences that have 
affected it. 

WORDS OF SAXON ORIGIN. 

1. Terms expressive of primary ideas and simple 

objects; as, man, woman, sun, moon, land, sea, 
sky, star, light, shade, &c. 

2. Words denoting degrees of kindred ; as, father, 

mother, son, daughter, brother, sister 5 husband, 
wife, &C 1 

3. The names of the primary colours : red, black, 

white, green, brown, blue, yellow. 2 

4. Names of metals: gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, 

brass. 3 

5. The common and simple acts of life : come, go, 

eat, run, swim, fly, sing, climb, speak, &c. 

6. Words denoting parts of the body ; as, head, hair, 

1 The French word ' cousin' is an exception. 

2 Names of compound colours, as 'purple,' 'orange,' 'lilac, 1 
&c., are derived from other sources. 

3 Platinum, a later discovery, is a Spanish word. 

A A 



354 ENGLISH STYLE. 

eye, nose, mouth, arm, limb, back, breast, finger, 
nail, &c. 

7. Names of domestic animals, while living : cat, 

hound, horse, sheep, cow, steer, ox, calf, goat, 
swine. 1 

8. Words denoting the cries of such animals : bark, 

neigh, bleat, low, &c. 

9. Names of simple arts ; as, read, write, work, spin, 

saw, hammer, smite (smith), &c. 

10. Terms used in agriculture : till, plough, harrow, 

field, acre, hedge, gate, corn, barley, wheat, flail, 
sickle, spade, dig, &c. 

11. The primary passions : love, hate, fear, hope, &c. 

12. Words denoting simple religious ideas ; as, God, 

heaven, hell, fiend, wicked, faith, righteous, &c. 

13. All pronouns : the verb " to be" in all its parts, 

all prepositions and conjunctions, the articles 
and numerals. 

WORDS OF NORMAN-FRENCH ORIGIN. 

1. Military terms ; as, general, colonel, army, regi- 

ment, captain, lieutenant, ensign, corporal, sol- 
dier, march, advance, retreat, garrison, &c. 

2. Feudal words : chivalry, castle, court, tournament, 

seneschal, chamberlain, tower, joust, manor, 
vassal, &c. 

3. The various species of animal food (when cooked) : 

beef, mutton, veal, pork, &c. 

4. Names of titles : duke, count, viscount, baron, 

marquis. 2 

1 See the dialogue between Gurth and Wamba, in Scott's 
" Ivanhoe," chap. i. 

2 Earl, Thane, Alderman, and Sheriff, are Saxon, and were 
used before the Conquest. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 355 

5. Abstract terms in common use ; as, ignorance, 

charity, mercy, experience, clemency, bounty, 
benevolence, ambition. 

6. Terms of law ; as, judge, jury, court, examine, 

prisoner, counsel, advocate, attorney, &c. 

WORDS DERIVED FROM GREEK. 

Scientific terms ; as, arithmetic, botany, calisthe- 
nics, deinotherium, etymology, geography, hy- 
drophobia,, ichthyology, lithography, metre, 
nomad, oxygen, paragraph, rheumatism, scheme, 
telegraph, zoology, &c. 

WORDS DERIVED FROM LATIN. 1 

1. Words expressing mental action ; as, reflect, con- 

sider, imagine, conclude, meditate, contemplate, 
deliberate, apprehend, &c. 

2. "Words expressing strong passion ; as, detest, 

abominate, abhor, desire, terror, consternation, 
despair, adore, &c. 

3. Names of wild animals ; as, lion, tiger, elephant, 

leopard, panther, &c. 

WORDS OF ITALIAN ORIGIN. 

1. Technical terms in music and painting ; as, 

andante, adagio, presto, chiaro-oscuro. 

2. Caricature, carneval, ditto, gazette, gondola, grotto, 

opera, piazza, portico, stanza, vista, volcano, &c. 

1 Many of these, however, are derived from Latin through 
French. 

A A 2 



356 ENGLISH STYLE. 



ARABIC WORDS. 



1. Some scientific terms : algebra, almanac, azimuth, 

zenith, zero. 

2. Chemical terms ; as, alcohol, alembic, alkali, elixir. 

3. Names of some articles of commerce : amber, 

camphor, coffee, cotton, gazelle, giraffe, sofa, 
sugar, tamarind, &c. 

DUTCH WORDS. 

Some sea terms ; as, sloop, schooner, yacht, boom, 
skipper, tafferel, &c. 

SPANISH WORDS. 

Alligator, armada, cargo, cigar, Creole, don, duenna, 
flotilla, grandee, mosquito, mulatto, negro, punctilio, 
sherry, tornado, verandah, &c. 

Of the prevalence of monosyllables in our language, 
we have already taken notice. Whether this should 
be regarded as an unfavourable point in its character, 
may be very doubtful. At any rate, we should not 
rashly conclude that the effect produced by an aggre- 
gation of monosyllables is harsh or disagreeable. 
Much will depend on the order in which such words 
are arranged ; and a writer of delicate or cultivated 
ear will instinctively adopt such an arrangement, even 
in composing monosyllabic sentences, as will greatly 
modify, if not wholly destroy, any harshness arising 
from the nature of his materials. But the English 
language possesses such copiousness and variety of 
expression, that no one needs ever to be at a loss for 
terms ; and it will be always found possible occasion- 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 357 

ally to intersperse longer words among monosyllables, 
so as to give greater variety, both cf cadence and 
rlrythm, to the period. Besides, it must not be for- 
gotten, that though, perhaps, these monosyllables do 
not positively contribute to the beauty or harmony of 
a sentence, they have in them a vigour and force of 
expression we may look for in vain in more lengthened 
and more sonorous words. Indeed, it may be truly 
said, that much of the power and energy of English — 
especially in the higher efforts of eloquence and poetry 
— is to be referred to this very source. For, as a 
large majority of our words are of one syllable, and as 
every word represents a distinct idea, the effect is that 
more vigour and concentration of meaning are pro- 
duced in a smaller space than can be done in most of 
the continental languages of Europe. 

No one who has devoted much attention to the cha- 
racter of our language, can have failed to perceive its 
remarkable flexibility. English lends itself with such 
ease to all forms of composition, that any one unac- 
quainted with this power would naturally imagine it 
to be especially suited to the one form he happened 
to be studying, and would not suspect that it was 
equally applicable to all others. Indeed, it would 
be very difficult to decide on the particular form 
of expression for which English is best adapted. 
To prove its capability for pathos and tenderness, we 
have but to open, almost at random, any of our great 
poets. Innumerable passages from Spenser, Shak- 
spere, Goldsmith, Coleridge, &c, attest its remarkable 
adaptation for this purpose. In the sublime soaring 
of the loftiest and boldest imagination — the expression 
of the vast and infinite — it is certainly equal, if not 

A A 3 



358 ENGLISH STYLE. 

superior, to any modern language, as clearly shown 
in the marvellous poetry of Milton. Again, in the 
stately, dignified march of philosophy and history, 
it is singularly forcible and impressive, as the com- 
positions of Hume, Dugald Stewart, and Gibbon suf- 
ficiently prove. 

If we turn to the elegant and fanciful, in what lan- 
guage can we look for anything so exquisitely graceful 
and airy, so sparkling with brilliant beauty, as Pope's 
" Rape of the Lock," or Shakspere's " Midsummer 
Night's Dream ? " For the purpose of satire, whether 
it be acrimonious and venomous, as in the writings of 
Swift, earnest and serious, as in Cowper, or delicate 
and humorous, as in Addison, English may be safely 
pronounced second to none in existence. It is equally 
w r ell adapted to express the violence of hatred, jealousy, 
and anger, or the gentler emotions of the heart. 
Another phase of its nature is its power to express 
sound and sterling good sense, a high moral tone, and 
a thoughtful philosophy, — qualities, indeed, which may 
be found, together with others, in most English 
writers of eminence. 

This extraordinary flexibility of our language is 
most probably owing to the variety and number of 
sources from which it is drawn. Its vigour, sturdy 
strength, and deep feeling, which we may regard as 
its fundamental qualities, are derived from the Anglo- 
Saxon. Its animation, fire, and activity are probably of 
Norman-French origin ; while for its philosophical and 
moral tone we must look to a Greek or a Latin source. 
Thus, English, for whatever purpose it may be required, 
would seem to possess an almost equal power of adap- 
tation ; and all these characteristics, blending with 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. dOV 

each other and mixed together, produce in it a plastic 
nature, which moulds itself to the expression of almost 
every state of mind or feeling. 

Another prominent characteristic of our language 
is its extensive power of combination. To this, to- 
gether with its monosyllabic nature, it is indebted for 
its brevity and condensation of expression. To say 
much in few words has always been regarded as a 
great difficulty, and consequently a great merit ; but 
in English the very nature of the language will, in 
this respect, materially assist the writer, for it is a 
question whether more can be expressed in fewer 
words in any modern language than in our own. 

According to most philologists, the principle of ag- 
glutination, or the attraction of words to each other, 
operates at a very early stage of every language. 
Simple ideas would be at first represented by single 
syllables, but, in process of time, ideas being attracted 
to each other, words of two, three, &c, syllables would 
be formed. This may be shown in the ancient clas- 
sical languages ; the root expresses the primary idea, 
and the ending, or inflection, shows the relation in 
which it stands to other ideas. Thus, the Latin root 
nub corresponds with the English cloud ; but if we 
add the inflections es, is, i 9 em, e, &c, these endings, 
or cases, as they are called by grammarians, mark its 
various relations. It appears to be the natural ten- 
dency of language, after a time, to rid itself of these 
inflections, and to supply their places by prepositions 
and signs ; at any rate, it is well known that the older 
a language, the less of inflection it retains. This is 
true of our own ; many endings of words found in Old 
English have now disappeared ; for example, the termi- 
a a 4 



360 ENGLISH STYLE. 

nation en of the infinitive mood 1 , the ge (or?/), as a 
prefix of the participle 2 , still occasionally found in 
our modern poets 3 , &c. 

But whatever advantages a system of inflection 
may have possessed, its loss seems to be compensated 
in modern English by an increased power of combina- 
tion. Our compound words are formed in various 
ways: — 1. By an adjective and a participle; as, 
' grey-coated,' ' blue-veined,' ' hoary-headed,' ' noble- 
hearted,' &c. 2. By two nouns ; as, ' hazel-nut,' 
' milk-maid,' ' school-fellow,' 'hail-storm,' ' thunder- 
bolt,' &c. 3. By an adverb and a participle ; as, 
' far-darting,' ' long-expected,' * ill-assorted,' ' well- 
arranged,' &c. 4. By a noun and a participle ; as, 
' joy-dispensing,' 'heartbroken,' 'sea-faring,' 'God- 
fearing,' ' ivory-wristed,' ' silver-footed,' &c. In some 
few cases, three words are combined ; as in ' matter- 
of-fact,' ' out-of-doors,' ' bye-and-bye,' &c. It may 
be safely asserted that no continental language pos- 
sesses this principle in the same degree as English. 
In German it operates more extensively, but in all 
the Romanz languages there is little or no power of 
combination, and their forms of expression are con- 
sequently more diffusive. The words ' cloud-capped,' 
'heart-broken,' &c, have no corresponding single terms 
in French, Italian, or Spanish. All such English words 

1 " And let our sorrow sinken in thine heart." 

Chaucer, The Knight's Tale. 

" For, round about, the walls z/clothed were 
With goodly arras of great majesty." 

Sfenser, Fairie Queene. 

" In heaven ?/cleped Euphrosyne." Milton, L' Allegro. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 361 

must be translated into these languages by a circum- 
locution, which, of necessity, weakens the expression. 

It would be a great error to judge of the copious- 
ness or poverty of a language by the size of its 
dictionary, or the number of words it contains. All 
nations are continually borrowing and lending words. 
In this respect a certain though imperceptible change 
is incessantly going on. Some words are adopted, 
and others fall into disuse, as improvements in art, 
science, &c, may require new terms, or as old ones 
are found to be no longer necessary ; so that every 
half century may be said to witness the language in a 
different condition. Whether these innovations and 
fallings off are always real gains or losses, may be in 
many cases doubtful ; but this natural law of change 
continually operates, and no human power will ever 
prevent it. But the copiousness of a language is much 
better determined by the variety of meaning in words, 
than by their number. For, when one word may be 
used in different senses, each of these senses may be 
considered as equivalent to a word of but one mean- 
ing ; and in such cases, the language has a decided 
advantage over others in possessing the power of ex- 
pressing many shades or slight varieties of signification. 

Delicacy of expression must in a great measure 
depend upon copiousness. Where there is a greater 
variety to choose from, there must be more shades 
of difference in meaning, and consequently a greater 
power of nicety and accuracy. Here, again, En- 
glish stands pre-eminent; and there can be little 
doubt that the copiousness, variety, and delicacy of 
our language are caused by its mixed nature. In a 
great majority of cases, we have Anglo-Saxon, corre- 



362 ENGLISH STYLE. 

sponding with Latin or French terms, closely resem- 
bling each other, and yet not identical in meaning ; 
as, liberty (L.), freedom (A.-S.) ; vicinity (L.), 
neighbourhood (A.-S.) ; reply (L.), answer (A.-S.) ; 
bounty (L.), goodness (A.-S.) ; difficult (L.), hard 
(A.-S.) ; comprehend (L.), understand (A.-S.) ; &c. 
It is also curious to observe how many words of 
slightly different shades of meaning seem to cluster 
round a generic term, as shoots from a parent stem. 
Take the generic term leave. What a variety of 
modes or species of ' leaving ' we have in the words 
'quit,' * forsake,' 'give up," abandon,' ' desert,' ' resign/ 
' relinquish,' &c, — all of these containing the idea of 
leaving, and also expressing some accessory idea of 
manner or circumstance. 

But shades of meaning are found not only in differ- 
ent words ; for in English, the same word, either by 
a change of the internal vowel-sound, or by the 
addition of a prefix or affix, frequently has its signifi- 
cation modified. The principles of augmentation, 
diminution, and repetition, which give such a variety 
of expression in Italian, exist, though not in the same 
degree, in our language. For example, the termina- 
tion oon in certain words conveys the idea of increased 
size ; as in balloon (a large ball), lagoon (a large lake), 
baboon (a big baby), &c. The endings et, ling, and 
kin, have a correspondingly diminishing effect ; as in 
' cruet,' ' pocket,' and ' turret,' from ' cruse,' ' poke,' 
and 'tower;' 'gosling,' 'foundling,' 'duckling,' from 
'goose,' 'find,' and 'duck;' 'lambkin,' from 'lamb ;' 
and ' napkin,' from (the French) ' nappe.' The ending 
le, in many verbs, expresses repetition or continued 
action, as in ' prattle,' from ' prate ; ' ' grapple,' from 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 363 

'gripe;' 'scuffle/ from 'shove;' 'ramble,' from 'roam,' 
&c. But it is unnecessary to multiply examples; hun- 
dreds of cases might be added, to prove how exten- 
sively these principles operate in the English language. 
Many writers have lamented the falling off of Saxon 
words, terminations, and forms from English. But 
all such regrets are vain and futile : in this the lan- 
guage does but obey a law of Nature, who seems to 
have decreed that there shall be a rise, a period of 
vigour, and a time of decay, to everything human. 
On the other hand, it is certainly the duty of every one 
who loves his language as a part of his native country, 
to assist in preserving it in as pure a state as possible, 
— not blindly to follow a new fashion in the intro- 
duction of words, but strenuously to resist all pedantic 
and unnecessary innovations, and to persist in reject- 
ing all words for the use of which no good authority 
can be shown. Eminent writers might also do a real 
service by occasionally extending the use of words 
already adopted. De Quincey, no mean authority in 
such matters, complains of the confined sense in which 
many English words are used, and proposes that their 
meanings shall be more variously applied. " There is 
an occasional tendency," he says, "in the use and 
practice of the English language, capriciously to limit 
the use of certain words. Thus, for instance, the 
word condign is used only in connection with the 
word punishment ; the word implicit is used only in 
connection wilh. faith or confidence. So also the w r ord 
putative is restricted most absurdly to the one sole 
word father in a question of doubtful affiliation. 
These and other words, if unlocked from their absurd 
imprisonment, would become extensively useful. We 






364 ENGLISH STYLE. 

should say, for instance, ' condign honours,' 6 condign 
rewards/ ' condign treatment ' (treatment appropriate 
to the merits), thus at once realising two rational 
purposes, viz., giving a useful function to a word 
which at present has none, and also providing an 
intelligible expression for an idea, which otherwise is 
left without the power of uttering itself, except through 
a ponderous circumlocution. Precisely in the same 
circumstances of idle and absurd sequestration, stands 
the word 'polemic.' At present, according to the 
popular usage, this word has some fantastic inalienable 
connection with controversial theology. There can- 
not be a more childish chimera. No doubt there is a 
polemic side or aspect of theology ; but so there is of 
all knowledge — so there is of every science." * 

It has been frequently said, and certainly with some 
truth, that the English language is deficient in melody. 
Though it cannot be denied that there are languages 
which excel ours in fulness and beauty of sound, it is 
the writer's deliberate opinion that the truth is here 
greatly exaggerated — that English is by no means so 
harsh as it is generally represented — and that in 
this, as in many similar cases, the prejudice, once 
adopted, is handed down from one generation to 
another, and is at length admitted as a sort of de- 
monstrated proposition which requires no further 
investigation. 

1 The word 'inveterate 9 is in a similar predicament. It 
should properly qualify whatever has gained strength by age ; 
but it is always used in a bad sense. "We hear of inveterate 
enmity, inveterate malice, revenge, &c. ; but never of inveterate 
affection, friendship, &c. ; and yet there is no good reason why 
it should not be extended to the latter meaning. 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 365 

There are here principally three points for con- 
sideration: — 1. The number of close vowels in English. 
2. The clustering of consonants ; and 3. The frequent 
hissing sound of the letter s. These appear to be the 
chief instances in which harshness of sound is pro- 
duced, and to all of these we must undoubtedly plead 
guilty. First, the open vowel of the primitive is 
in many English words made close in the derivative. 
Thus, we have ' bite ' (pronounced with the vowel i 
open), but ' bit ' and < bitter ' with close vowels. In the 
same way ' zeal ' makes ' zealous ; ' ' m5on ' i mo'nth ; ■ 
' strong ' ' stre ngth,' &c. Secondly, our language has 
many words with three or even more consonants 
coming together ; for example, the initials str, scr, and 
shr, as in ' stream, 9 'scratch,' 6 shriek ;' the final th, as in 
'width, 9 'strength, 9 'breads,' &c. ; the initial ill (hard), 
as in 'thick,' ' thistle, 9 &c, and a large majority of words 
end in consonants. Thirdly, the frequent repetition 
of the letter s is caused, first, by its appearance in all 
the roots beginning with that letter; secondly, by 
being almost exclusively the termination of plural 
forms of nouns,, and of their possessive singular ; and 
lastly, by its being the ending of the third person sin- 
gular of the present indicative of every verb in the 
language. 

But for these admitted disadvantages there is a 
compensation. English is comparatively free from the 
guttural sounds of most of the Teutonic and Slavonic 
languages, and it does not possess that disagreeable 
nasal tone which may certainly be regarded as mate- 
rially interfering with the beauty of French as a 
spoken language. Besides, the almost total absence of 
inflection gives a much greater variety of endings to 



366 ENGLISH STYLE. 

words than can be expected where a system of inflec- 
tion is adopted. The " veni, vidi, vici " of Caesar, is 
certainly not very pleasing in sound ; neither is the 
" abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit " of Cicero ; nor the 
" tsedet harum quotidianarum formarum " of Terence. 
If these were translated into English, we should pro- 
bably have a different ending for every word. 

After a study of its grammatical forms, the real cha- 
racter of a language must be looked for in its idio- 
matical expression. An idiom may be defined as a 
form of words peculiar to some one language, and 
may be known by the impossibility of translating it 
literally into any other. Thus, the common English 
form of salutation, " How do you do ? " is idiomatic ; 
for we could not correctly translate this expression 
word for word into any other European language. 
Another example of idiom appears in the incomplete 
form of our present tense: " What are you doing?" 
"I am reading an amusing book," &c. None of these 
are translatable literally. A study of idiom will give a 
more perfect knowledge of the tone of thought, habits, 
and feelings of a people, than can be derived from 
any other source. Idiomatic expressions are, on the 
whole, the best criterion of the merits of a language ; 
and they must be looked for in the ordinary forms 
of daily and domestic intercourse, and the common 
conversation of the people, rather than in the elabo- 
rate and polished forms of written composition. It is 
the idiom that stamps the individuality of a language, 
and distinguishes the people as a nation ; and it is 
this part that is always the most difficult for foreigners 
to master. An investigation of the philosophy of 
English idiom would, no doubt, throw a great light on 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 367 

the history of this nation. It has been often remarked, 
that the energy and activity of our national character 
are perceptible in our common forms of speech ; and 
that the spirit of commercial enterprise, as well as the 
industry, caution, and skill which distinguish us as a 
nation, may all be here discovered. This is, no 
doubt, true; ^nd we may safely conclude that the 
real nature of the English mind will be best under- 
stood by the study of English idiom. 

The extraordinary extension of his language should 
be to every Englishman a subject of natural and 
honourable pride. No language, either in ancient or 
modern times, has ever been so widely spread as English. 
If we compare the extent of territory over which the 
ancient Latin was spoken with that in which English 
now predominates, we shall be struck with the differ- 
ence ; and when we remember that neither India nor 
America was known to the Romans, we shall easily 
see how much more widely diffused is the modern 
English than w r as the ancient Latin language. In 
modern times, French, at one period, had a consider- 
able preponderance in Europe, and it is still very 
generally studied, and even spoken, on the Continent. 
But, on the whole, the preponderance is now greatly 
on the side of English. It is spoken throughout Eng- 
land, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man 
(though in all these places there are still some scanty 
remains of Keltic dialects) ; and in the United States, 
in Canada, Australia, and all the English colonies and 
dependencies, it is now the prevailing language. 

English was first introduced into North America in 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The States of Vir- 
ginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Georgia, &C., were 



368 ENGLISH STYLE. 

successively settled, and the preponderance of the 
English language was at length established over the 
greater part of the Northern Continent of America. 
During the rule of Cromwell, the Island of Jamaica 
was taken from the Spaniards, and our language soon 
after prevailed in most of the West India Islands. 
Canada became an English colony after -the taking of 
Quebec in the Seven years' war. As this province 
had been previously a French possession, the French 
language is still maintained there ; so that at the 
present time, both English and French are spoken in 
that country. 

The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope fell 
into our hands during the war of the Great French 
Revolution. Here, as in Canada, a double language 
prevails, Dutch and English being both maintained. 

In India, the English language prevails over a vast 
space of territory, but here the native dialects are 
all maintained to a much greater extent than in our 
other colonial possessions. 

In Australia and New Zealand, English is the only 
European language spoken. 

In the smaller possessions of the English in various 
parts of Europe, as Jersey, Guernsey, Heligoland, 
Gibraltar, Malta, &c, the English language also 
prevails. 

But this is not all. The probably future propaga- 
tion of English is also a matter for consideration. It 
seems likely that, in the course of time, both the 
continents of America, South as well as North, will 
fall into the hands of the European inhabitants of the 
northern portion, and that the Americans will also 
plant settlements in many parts of the eastern shores 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 369 

of the Pacific Ocean. Whatever may be the future 
destiny of China and Japan, many portions of these 
empires will, in all probability, fall under the domi- 
nion of an Anglo-Saxon race ; and if so, the English 
language will prevail far more extensively than at 
present in all the quarters of the globe. True, this is 
mere matter for speculation ; but judging from present 
circumstances, and the wonderfully active spirit of 
those who speak English, it is not altogether unrea- 
sonable to conclude that if it should advance at the 
rate we have witnessed for the last fifty years, it 
will eventually become the dominant language of the 
world. 

It may be thought by some that the extraordinary 
merit here claimed for our language is the natural 
effect of a pardonable national vanity. But these 
views are supported by those of a learned foreign 
linguist, who cannot be influenced by such feelings, 
and who, moreover, may be cited as the highest autho- 
rity on this subject. Jacob Grimm, in his work " On 
the Origin of Language," has the following passage : 
" English possesses a veritable power of expression, 
such as perhaps never stood at the command of any 
other language of men. Its highly spiritual genius, 
and wonderfully happy development and condition, 
have resulted from a surprisingly intimate union of 
the two noblest languages in modern Europe, the 
Teutonic and the Romanz. It is well known in what 
relation these two stand to one another in the English 
tongue ; the former supplying in far larger propor- 
tion the material groundwork, the latter the spiritual 
conceptions. In truth, the English language, which 
by no mere accident has produced and upborne 

B B 



370 ENGLISH STYLE. 

the greatest and most predominant poet of modern 
times, as distinguished from the ancient classical 
poetry (I can, of course, only mean Shakspere), may 
with all right be called a world-language ; and, like 
the English people, appears destined hereafter to pre- 
vail with a sway more extensive even than its present 
over all the portions of the globe. For in wealth, 
good sense, and closeness of structure, no other of the 
languages at this day spoken deserves to be compared 
with it, — not even our German, which is torn, even 
as we are torn, and must first rid itself of many 
defects before it can enter boldly into the lists as a 
competitor with the English." 



EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON PART VIII. 

1. What opinion is now generally held by scholars concerning 

the origin and affinities of European languages ? 

2. In what countries of Europe did the Kelts originally settle ? 

3. What parts of Europe were occupied by a Teutonic migra- 

tion ? 

4. What European languages belong to the Slavonic family ? 

5. What traces of their language did the Romans leave in 

Britain ? 

6. Quote some modern English words of Keltic origin. 

7. In what parts of Europe are the remains of the Keltic lan- 

guage still found ? 

8. In what century was Anglo-Saxon substituted for Keltic in 

this country ? 

9. State some particulars in which Anglo-Saxon differs from 

English. 
10. What effect had the Danish invasions on the Saxon language 
of England ? 



QUESTIONS ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 371 

11. In what century was the Norman-French language intro- 

duced into this country ? 

12. Mention the two dialects then used in France. 

13. By what general characteristics were these distinguished 

from each other ? 

14. Which of these two was brought into England at the Con- 

quest ? 

15. By what classes of society were the two languages, Norman- 

French and Anglo-Saxon, spoken after the Conquest ? 

16. What written specimens of Anglo-Saxon still remain ? 

17. For what purposes was Latin used in England for 200 years 

after the Conquest ? 

18. And in what cases was Norman-French adopted ? 

19. What name is given to the Saxon language used in England 

from 1066 to 1250 ? 

20. What specimens of this language may be quoted ? 

21. During what period did the "Early English" last ? 

22. WTiat specimens have we of this condition of the language ? 

23. What is meant by " Middle English ? " 

24. Give some examples of " Middle English." 

25. From what date commences what is called "Modern 

English ? " 



1. From what sources is the English language derived ? 

2. Which of its parts still preponderates ? 

3. How may this be proved ? 

4. In what cases are Saxon words still used ? 

5. State some in which Norman-French is adopted. 

6. Quote some English words derived from Greek and Latin. 

7. What terms are derived from Italian ? 

8. Give some cases of English words derived from Arabic. 

Dutch, and Spanish. 



1. What effect has the prevalence of monosyllables on the 

English language ? 

2. What rule should be adopted with regard to the use ot 

monosyllables? 



372 ENGLISH STYLE. 

3. How may it be proved that English is a flexible language ? 

4. To what cause may this flexibility be attributed ? 

5. What is meant by a power of combination in a language ? 

6. Show that English possesses this power extensively. 

7. What is meant by an inflected language ? 

8. Is Modern English an inflected language ? 

9. Which is the best criterion of the copiousness of a language ? 

10. What may be said of English with respect to delicacy and 

variety of expression ? 

11. What is the best rule to follow as regards the adoption of 

new words ? 

12. What is the general opinion concerning the harmony of the 

English language ? 

13. What points should be here considered? 

14. What compensations does English possess for these dis- 

advantages ? 

15. What is meant by " Idiom ? " 

1 6. What lesson may be learnt from a careful study of idiom ? 

17. What may be said of the extension of the English language ? 

18. In whose reign was English first introduced into North 

America ? 

19. At what period did Canada become an English colony ? 

20. By what means was English introduced at the Cape of Good 

Hope? 

21. In what other parts of the globe is English found ? 

22. Upon what grounds may we rationally conclude that our 

language will be still further extended ? 



THE END. 



London : 

Printed by Spottiswoode & Co. 

New-street Square. 



39, Paternoster Row, LONDOX: September 1857. 

(tontl JJp&atotintl fists 

OF 

SCHOOL-BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, and CO. 

+ 

ALGEBRA. 

Colenso's Elements, Part 1. 12mo. (Key, 5s.) 4s. 6d. 

„ „ Part II. 12mo. (Key, 5s.) 6s. 

„ „ complete, for Teachers and Students, 8vo 12s. Gd. 

„ Algebra for National and Elementary Schools, 18mo. (Key, 2s. 6d.) Is. Gd. 

„ Examples and Equation Papers, 12mo 2s. Cd. 

Lund's Short and Easy Course of Algebra, fcp. 8vo. (Key, 5s.) 2s. Gd. 

Reynolds's Elementary Algebra for Beginners, 18mo. (Key, 3d.) Is. 

Scott's Arithmetic and Algebra for the use of Sandhurst College, Svo lGs. 

Tate's Algebra made Easy, intended chiefly for the use of Schools, 12mo. . . 2s. 

Thomson's Elementary Treatise, 12mo. (Key, 4s. Gd.) 5s. 

Wood's Elements, for University Students, by Lund, 8vo 12s. Gd. 

Lund's Companion to Ditto, Svo 6s. 6d. 

Young's Elementary Treatise, 12mo. (Key, by Spiller, 6s.) 6s. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Blain's Rationale of Arithmetical Teaching, 12mo Is. 6d. 

Colenso's Arithmetic for Schools, 12mo. (Key, by Maynard, 6s.) 4s. 6d. 

„ Text-Book of Elementary Arithmetic, 18mo. (with Answers, 2s. 3d.) Is. 9d. 

ggg?* Colenso's Elementary Arithmetic may be had in Five Parts, as follows: — 

1. Text- Book 6t/. I 3. Examples, Pt. II. Compound Arithmetic id. 

2. Examples,Pt.I. Simple Arithmetic id. \ 4 Examples A^t-lll-FraettouaJ^cimaUyDttodteimmhid. 

5. Answers to the Examples, with Solutions of the more difficult Questions It. 

Crosby's Walkingame's Tutor's Assistant, by Maynard, l2rno. (Key, 3s. Gd.) 2s. 

Galbraith and Haughton's Manual of Arithmetic, 12mo. 2s. ; cloth 2s. 6d. 

Hiley's Arithmetical Companion, ISmo. (Key, Is. 6d.) 8b. 

Hughes's Manual of Arithmetic, fcp. 8vo. (with Key, 3s. Gd.) Is. Gd. 

Joyce's System of Practical Arithmetic, by Maynard, 12mo. (Key, 8s.) 

Lardner's Treatise on Arithmetic, fcp. Svo 3s. Gd. 

M'Leod's Course of Arithmetical Questions, 2 parts, 12mo. each Is. 

Manual for Elementary Instruction, ISmo Is, 

Extended Multiplication and Pence Tables, per dozen 

Molineux's Arithmetic, 2 parts, l2mo. each ( Keys, Sixpence each) 

Scott's Arithmetic and Algebia for the use of Sandhurst College, Svo 

Decimal Arithmetic for the use of Schools, l2mo 

Tate's Treatise on the First Principles of Arithmetic, l'-ino Is. 6.1. 

„ Mental Arithmetic for Teachers, Bvo 

Tate On the New Coinage in relation to our School Arithmetics, l2mo 9<1. 

London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTO. 



ASTRONOMY, METEOROLOGY, and NAVIGATION. 

Arago's Popular Astronomy, translated by Smyth and Grant, Vol. I. 8vo. . .21s. 

„ Meteorological Essays, trans. underCol.Sabine'ssuperintendence,8vo.l8fl. 

Boyd's Manual for Naval Cadets, with 236 Woodcuts, fcp. 8vo 10s. 6d. 

Galbraith and Haughton's Manual of Astronomy, 12mo 2s. 

Herschel's Treatise on Astronomy, fcp. 8vo 3s. 6d. 

„ Outlines of Astronomy, 8vo 18s. 

Jeans's Problems in Astronomy, Surveying, and Navigation, 12mo 6s. 

,, Handbook for the Stars of the First and Second Magnitude, 8vo. . . 3s. Gd. 

Stepping-Stone to Astronomy, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

Tate's Astronomy and the Use of the Globes, for Beginners, 18mo Is. 

ATLASES. 

Brewer's Elementary Atlas of History and Geography, royal 8vo 12s. 6d. 

Butler's Atlas of Ancient Geography, royal 8vo 12s. 

„ Junior Ancient Atlas, royal 8vo 4s. 6d. 

„ General Atlas of Modern and Ancient Geography, royal 4to 24s. 

„ Atlas of Modern Geography, royal 8vo 12s. 

„ Junior Modern Atlas, royal 8vo 4s. Cd. 

„ Outline Geographical Copy-Books, Ancient and Modern, each 4s. 

Hall's First or Elementary Atlas of 10 coloured Maps, oblong 4to Is Gd. 

t , Map- Projections, Is. ; Hall's Outline Maps Is. 

Hughes's General Atlas for Elementary Schools, 18mo. (coloured, Is. 6d.) . . Is. 

„ Introductory Atlas of Modern Geography, 12mo 2s. Gd. 

„ Atlas of Physical, Political, and Commercial Geography, royal 8vo.l0s. Gd. 

, t School Atlas of Physical Geography, 12mo Is. 6d. 

M'Leod's Scripture Atlas, Part I. 4s.; Part II. 3s. ; or complete, royal 8vo. 7s. 
„ Hand- Atlas of General Geography, 29 full-coloured Maps, 18mo. . . 2s. Gd. 
„ Class-Atlas of Physical Geography, 20 coloured Maps, &c. 18mo. . . 2s. Gd. 
„ Physical Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland 

BIOGRAPHY. 

Arago's Lives of Distinguished Scientific Men, 8vo 18s. 

Maunder' s Biographical Treasury, fcp. 8vo 10s. 

Merivale's Life and Letters of Cicero, 12mo 9s. 6d. 

Stepping-Stone to Biography, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

Wheeler's Life and Travels of Herodotus, 2 vols, post 8vo 21s. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

Isbister's Elements, by Single and Double Entry, 18mo Is. 

„ Set of Eight Account-Books adapted to the above, each 6d. 

CALCULUS and LOGARITHMS. 

Carmichael's Treatise on the Calculus of Operations, 8vo 9s. 

Farley's Tables of Six-figure Logarithms from 1 to 10,000, post 8vo 4s. 6d. 

Tate's Principles of the Differential and Integral Calculus, 12mo 4s. Gd. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Marcet's Conversations on Chemistry, 2 vols. fcp. 8vo 14s. 

Tate's Outlines of Experimental Chemistry, 12mo. Is. 6d. ; 18mo Is. 

Thomson's School Chemistry, fcp. 8vo 7s. 

London : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS. 



CHRONOLOGY. 

Blair's Chronological and Historical Tables, edited by Sir H. Ellis 81s. 6d. 

Brewer's Poetical Chronology of Inventions, Discoveries, Battles, &c.,12mo. 3s. 6d. 

„ Elementary Atlas of History and Geography, royal 8vo 12s. 6d. 

Hort's Introduction to Chronology and Ancient History, 18mo 4s. 

Howlett's Tables of Chronology and Regal Genealogies, 4to 5s. 6d. 

„ Metrical Chronology, post 8vo 7s. 

Jaquemet's Compendium, edited by the Rev. J. Alcorn, M.A., post 8vo 7s. 6d. 

Nicolas's Chronology of History, fcp. 8vo 3s. 6d. 

School Chronology, or the Great Dates of History, square 12mo Is. 

Slater's School Chronology, or Sententise Chronologicse, 12mo 3s. Gd. 

„ Coloured Chronological Chart toaccompany the above (on roller,9s.6d.) 6s. 
Valpy's Poetical Chronology of Ancient and English History, 12mo 2s. 6d. 

CIVIL LAW and POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Humphreys's Manual of Civil Law, for Schools and Candidates, fcp. 8vo 3s. 6d. 

„ „ Political Science, for Schools & Candidates, fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
Marcet's Conversations on Political Economy, fcp. 8vo 7s. 6d. 

CLASSICAL DICTIONARIES and MYTHOLOGY. 

Barker's Lempri&re's Classical Dictionary, edited by Dr. Cauvin, 8vo 12s. 

Hort's New Pantheon, or Introduction to Mythology, 18mo 4s. 6d. 

Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, 8vo 9s. 

Rich's Hlustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary and Greek Lexicon, 
with upwards of 2,000 Wood Engravings, post 8vo 21s. 

C0NCH0L0GY. 

Catlow's Popular Conchology, or the Shell Cabinet arranged, post 8vo 14s. 

COPY-BOOKS. 

M'Leod's Graduated Series of Nine Copy-Books, each , 3d. 

DRAWING-BOOKS, &c. 

Malan's Aphorisms on Drawing, post 8vo 3s. 6d. 

Tate's Drawing for Schools, with numerous Illustrations and Exercises, 4to. 5s. 6d. 
„ Drawing-Book for Little Boys and Girls, with 130 Exercises, 4to Is. 6d. 

ENGLISH COMPOSITION, ELOCUTION, and SYNONYMES. 

Brewer's Guide to English Composition, fcp. 8vo 5s. 6d. 

Graham's English, or the Art of Comiwsition, fcp. 8vo 6s. 

„ Work on the Attainment of English Style 

„ English Synonymes, classified and explained, fcp. Svo 7s. 

Hiley's English Composition, Part I. or Junior Series, lSmo. (Key, 2s. Gd.) Is. 6d. 

Practical English Composition, Part II. 18mo 3s. 

Morell's Handbook of Logic, for Schools and Teachers, fcp. Svo 2s. 

Parker's Progressive Exercises in English Composition, 12mo Is. Gil. 

Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases classified, crown Svo 10s. 6d. 

London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS. 



EDUCATION in GENERAL. 

Domestic Economy, Housekeeping, Cookery, &c. (in Gleig's Series), 18mo.. . Is. 

Pillans's Contributions to the Cause of Education, 8vo 12s. 

Stow's Training System, &c, for Trainers and Governesses, post 8vo 6s. 

Sydenham's Notes of Lessons, 12mo. 8s. 

Tate's Philosophy of Education, or Principles &c. of Teaching, fcp. 8vo Cs. Gd. 

ENGLISH DICTIONARIES. 

Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge and Library of Reference, fcp. 8vo 10s. 

Smart's Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary Remodelled, 8vo 12s. 

if „ „ „ Epitomised, Ifimo 6s. 

Sullivan's Dictionary of Derivations, l2mo 2s. 

jit „ „ the English Language, 12mo 3s. 6d. 

ENGLISH ETYMOLOGY. 

Black's Student's Manual (Greek), 18mo. 2s. 6d. ; Sequel {Latin), 18mo 5s. 6(1. 

Ross's Etymological Manual of the English Language, 18mo 6d. 

ENGLISH GRAMMARS and EXERCISE-BOOKS. 

Downe's (Viscount ) Elementary English Grammar, 18mo Is. 

Hiley's English Grammar and Style, 12mo 3s. 6d. 

„ Abridgment of English Grammar, 18mo Is. 9(3. 

„ Child's First English Grammar, 18mo Is. 

„ Exercises adapted to the English Grammar, 12mo. (Key, 3s.) 2s. 6d. 

Hunter's Text-Book of English Grammar, 12mo 2s. 6d. 

M'Leod's Explanatory English Grammar, for Beginners, ISmo Is. 

Marcet's Game of English Grammar, with Conversations, post 8vo 8s. 

„ Mary's Grammar, interspersed with Stories, 18mo 8s. 6d. 

„ Willy's Grammar, interspersed with Stories, 18mo 2s. 6d. 

Morell'8 Analysis of Sentences explained and illustrated, 12mo 2s. 

„ Essentials of English Grammar and Analysis, fcp. 8vo 8d. 

„ Essentials of English Grammar, 18mo. Part I. 2d. ; Part II 3d. 

Smart's Course of English Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, &c. 5 vols. 12mo 23s. 6d. 

Stepping-Stone to English Grammar, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

Sullivan's Attempt to Simplify English Grammar, 18mo Is. 

ENGLISH PARSING. 

Hunter's Exercises in English Parsing, 12mo 6d. 

Lowres's System of English Parsing and Derivation, 18mo Is. 

ENGLISH POETRY. 

Connon's Selections from Milton's Paradise Lost, 12mo 3s. 6d. 

Cook's First Poetry-Book for Elementary Schools, 18mo 9d. 

„ Selection of School Poetry, with short Notes, 12mo 2s. 

Graham's Studies from the English Poets, or Poetical Reading-Book, 12mo. 7s. 

Hughes's Select Specimens of English Poetry, 12mo , 3s. 6d. 

M'Leod's Second Poetical Reading-Book, 12mo. Is. 8d. 

Palliser's Modern Poetical Speaker, chiefly for Ladies' Schools, 12mo 6s. 



London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS. 



ENGLISH READING-BOOKS. 

Hughes's Graduated Reading-Lesson-Books, fcp. 8vo. 3 Series, each Ss. 6d. 

„ Select Specimens of English Prose, 12mo 4s. ML 

Jones's Liturgical Class-Book, from the best authorities, 12mo Is. Gd. 

M'Leod's First Book to teach Reading and Writing, 18mo Gd. 

„ „ Reading-Book, 18mo. 3d.; oras Reading-Lessons, in30Sheets 3s. 

Mann's Lessons in General Knowledge, fcp. 8vo 3s. 6d. 

Maunder's Universal Class-Book for Every Day In the Year, 12mo 5a. 

Pycroft's Course of English Reading, fcp. 8vo 5b. 

Sewell's School Speaker and Holiday Task-Book, 12mo 6s. 

Simple Truths from Scripture, in Easy Lessons, 18mo Gd. 

Smart's Historico-Shakspearian Readings, 12mo f.s. 

Sullivan's Literary Class-Book, or Readings in Literature, 12mo 2s. 6d. 

ENGLISH SPELLING-BOOKS. 

Carpenter's Scholar's Spelling Assistant, 12mo Is. 6d. 

„ „ „ „ edited by M'Leod, 12mo Is. 6d. 

Hornsey's Prononncing Expositor, or New Spelling-Book, 12mo 2s. 

Mavor's English Spelling-Book, Genuine Edition, 12mo Is. Gd. 

Sullivan's English Spelling-Book Superseded, 18mo Is. -id. 

EUCLID. 

Colenso's Elements of Euclid, from Simson's Text, 18mo. (with Key, 6s. 6d.) 4s. 6d. 

„ Geometrical Problems (sv ithout Key, Is.), with Key, 18mo 3s. 6d. 

Galbraith and Haughton's Manual of Euclid, Books I. and II. 12mo Is. 

Tate's First Three Books of Euclid's Elements, 12mo. Is. Gd. ; 18mo Is. 

FORTIFICATION AND THE MILITARY ART. 

Hodge's Catechism of Fortification, for Students and Candidates, 12mo 2s. Gd. 

Macdougall's Theory of War, post 8vo. with Plans of Battles 1 1 

FRENCH GRAMMARS and EXERCISE-BOOKS. 

Albites' How to Speak French ; or, French & France: Facts, Reasons, Practice, 1-mo. 4s. 6d. 

Cambier's Sandhurst College French Grammar, 12mo 

Charente's Woolwich Academy French Course, 12mo I 

(fc^ Mr. Charente's French Course may be had M follows :— 



Part I. — Pronunciation — Accidence 3s. 

Part 11. — French and English Syntax com- 
pared 3s. 

Paris 1, and II. forming the Junior Course, 
in 1 vol. price 5s. 6d. 



Part III. — Gallicisms :ind Anglicism, 
Part IV.— byntaxe de Construction— S 

d'Accord— Difficult^ '. . . A*. 

Parts III. and IV. forming thi S 

in 1 vol. price 



Charente's Woolwich Academy French Exercise Book 

Collis's Short French Grammar for Classical Schools, 12mo 3s. 6d. 

Contansoau's Compendious Grammar of the French Language, 12ino 4s. 

„ Guide to French Translation, 12mo 3«. 6d. 

Hamel's New Universal French Grammar, 12mo 4«. 

„ Grammatical Exercises on the French Language, 12mo. (Key, In.) 4s. 
„ French Grammar and Exercises, by Lambert, L2mo. . K< 
Sadler's French Pronunciation & Conversation, in Question \ Ar.su er, L8mo, la. 

Tarver's Eton French Grammar, 12mo 

„ „ „ Exercises, Familiar* Conversational, 12m 

„ French Phraseology explained and compared, 12mo Ss. 



London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREBN, LONGMANS, nml ROBERTO, 

A 2 



FRENCH DICTIONARIES. 

Contanseau's New Practical French and English Dictionary, post 8vo 10s. 6d. 

Nugent's Pocket Dictionary of French & Engl. Languages, 18mo. 4s. 6d. ; 12rao. 7e. 6d. 
Tardy 's French Pronouncing Dictionary, 12mo 7s. 

FRENCH, ITALIAN, and GERMAN READING-BOOKS. 

Cambier's Sandhurst College French Reading-Book or Recueil, 12mo 5s. 

Charente's Woolwich Academy French Beading-Book 

Contanseau's Prosateurs et Poetes Francais.or Selections from French Writers 7s. 6d. 
Extraits Choisis from Modern French Writers, by the Author of Amy Herbert 
Lacaita's Italian Beading-Book, or Selections from best Italian Writers, 12mo. 5s. 

Metcalfe's History of German Literature 

Mailer's' German Beading-Book 

Rowan's Morceaux choisis des Auteurs Modernes, a 1' usage de la Jeunesse Gs. 
Tarver's Eton French Beading-Book,— Prose, Verse, and Phraseology, 12mo. 7s. 6d. 

„ Choix en Prose, 12mo. 3s. Gd. ; Choix en Vers, 12mo 3s. 3d. 

Wintzer's First German Reading-Book, for Beginners, fcp. 8vo 5s. 

GREEK CLASSICAL AUTHORS, &c. 

Aristotle's Politics, with English Notes, &c, edited by Eaton, 8vo 10s. 6d. 

Euripides, the 5 Plays, with English Notes by Major, post 8vo 24s. 

Heeodotus, with English Notes, &c, edited by Stocker, 2 vols. post8vo. . .18s. 

Houer's Iliad, with English Notes, &c, edited by Valpy, 8vo 10s. 6d. 

Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis (Greek, Latin, and English), Svo 14s. 

„ Treatise on the Greek Metres, 8vo 10s. 6d. 

Sophocles, with English Notes, &c, edited by Brasse and others, 2 vols. p.8vo. 34s. 

„ edited, with short Latin Notes, by Linwood, 8vo lGs. 

Theatre of the Greeks, edited by Donaldson, Svo 15s. 

Walford's Handbook of the Greek Drama, fcp. Svo 6a. 

Xenophon's Anabasis, with English Notes, &c, edited by White, 12mo. . . 7s. 6d. 

„ Memorabilia, with English Notes, &c, edited by Hickie, p. 8vo. 8s. 6d. 

GREEK GRAMMARS, EXERCISE-BOOKS, &c. 

Collis's Praxis Graeca, I.Etymology, 2s. 6d. ; II. Syntax, 6s. ; UI.Accentuation 3s. 

„ „ Iambica : Exercises in Greek Tragic Senarii 4s. 6d. 

Howard's Introductory Greek Exercises, 12mo. (Key, 2s. Gd.) , 5s. Gd. 

Kennedy's Greek Grammar (GrEecse Grammaticae Institutio Prima), 12mo. . 4s. 6d. 

M Palsestra Stili Graeci, or Greek Prose Materials, 12mo 

„ „ Musanrm, or Greek Verse Materials, 12mo 5s. Gd. 

Moody's NeAV Eton Greek Grammar, in English, 12mo 4s. 

Py croft's Greek Grammar Practice, 12mo 3s. Gd. 

Valpy'fi Elements of Greek Grammar, with Notes, Svo 6s. Gd. 

„ Greek Primitives and Leading Words, 12mo 6s. 

Valpy's Greek Delectus, improved by White, 12mo. (Key, 2s. 6d.) 4s. 

„ Second Greek Delectus, or New Analecta Minora, Svo 9s. Gd. 

Walford's Card of the Greek Accidence, Svo. Is. ; of the Greek Prosody, 8vo. Is. 

„ „ „ „ Accents, bth Edition 6d. 

Yonge's Exercises in Greek Prose Composition, 12mo. (Key, Is.) 5s. Gd. 

GREEK LEXICONS, &c. {see " Latin and Greek"). 

London : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS. 



GEOGRAPHY, GAZETTEERS, &c. 

Adams's Geographical Word-Expositor, Second Edition, 12mo 2*. 6d. 

Arrowsmith's Geographical Dictionary of the Holy Scriptures, 8vo 

Bowman's Questions on Hall's First or Elementary Atlas 2s. 

Butler's Ancient Geography, post 8vo.4s. ; Butler's ModernGeography,po8t8vo.4a. 

„ Modern and Ancient Geography complete, post 8vo 

Cabinet Gazetteer, by the Author of the Cabinet Lawyer, fcp. 8vo I 

Challener's Catechism of English Descriptive Geography, 18mo 

Cunningham's Abridgment of Butler's Geography, fcp. Svo 2s. 

Dowling's Introduction to Goldsmith's Geography, 18mo 9d. 

„ Questions on Goldsmith's Geography, ISmo. (Key, 9d.) 9d. 

Falmouth's Conversations on Geography, or Child's First Introduction, fcp. 7s. 6d. 
Goldsmith's Grammar of General Geography, fcp. 8vo. (Key, 18mo. Is.) — 

Hartley's Geography for Youth, 12mo. (Outlines, 18mo. 9d.) 

Hiley's First Geography for the Elementary Classes, 18mo Ml 

,, Progressive Geography, in Lessons and Exercises, 12mo 

Hughes's (E.) Geography for Elementary Schools, 18mo I -. 

„ Outlines of Physical Geography, 12mo I 

„ Examination-Questions on Physical Geography, fcp. Svo 

,, Outlines of Scripture Geography and History I 

Hughes's (W.) Manual of Geography, Physical, Industrial, and Political . . 

„ „ British Geography, fcp. 8vo 

„ „ Mathematical Geography, fcp. Svo 4s. 6d. 

„ General Geography, in Gleig's School Series, ISmo U, 

„ British Geography, in Gleig's School Series, ISmo Is. 

„ Child's First Geography, in Gleig's School Scries, ISmo 9d. 

Johnston's New General Gazetteer of the World, Svo 3Cs. 

Keith On the Globes, by Taylor, LeMesurier, andMiddleton, 12mo.(Ke\yJ 

M'Leod's Geography of Palestine or the Holy Land, 12mo 

„ Travels of St. Paul, 12mo 

„ Geography of Old Testament Com\tries(excepting Palest i >n\ Vhno. 

Mangnall's Compendium of Geography, for Schools, 12mo 

Maunder's Treasury of Geography, completed by W. Hughes, fcp. Bvo, . 

Stepping-Stone to Geography, in Question and Answer, ISmo 1 - . 

Sterne's School Geography, Physical and Political, ISmo 3s. 6d. 

Sullivan's Geography Generalised, 12mo - !• 

„ Introduction to Geography and History, ISmo Is. 

Wheeler's Geography of Herodotus developed.explained, and illustmu 

lOMETRY. 

■und's Geometry as an Art, with Easy Exercises, fcp. Svo 

„ „ a Science, with Easy Exercises, fcp. Svo I 

farrien's Elements of Geometry, for Sandhurst College, > s vo 

.'ale's Principles of Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, \v., Ifeno Sa. 6d. 

•'iADUSES. 

hasse's Greek Gradus, or Prosodial Lexicon, Svo 

Ialtby's New and Complete Greek Gradus, Svo 

NTonge's New Latin Gradus ad Parnassum, post Bvo, [wit] 9«. 

„ Dictionary of Latin Epithets, post Svo 

ndon: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROB 



HISTORICAL and MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOL-BOOKS. 

Anthony's Footsteps to Modern History, fcp. 8vo 5s. 6<1. 

Balfour's Sketches of English Literature 7s. 

Brewer's Elementary Atlas of History and Geography, royal 8vo 12s. 6d. 

Browne's Ancient Greece, 18mo. Is. ; Browne's Ancient Rome, 18mo Is. 

Burton's History of Scotland, from 1689 to 1748, 2 vols. 8vo 26s. 

Child's Fit st History of Rome, fcp. 8vo 2s. 6d. 

Corner's Historical Questions, or Sequel to Hangnail's, 12mo 5s. 

Fair's School and Family History of England, 12mo 5s. 6d. 

First History of Greece, by Author of the Child's First History of Rome,fcv.8vo. 3s. 6d. 
Gleig's England, or First Book of History, 18mo. (cloth, 2s. 6d.) 2s. 

„ British Colonies, or Second Book of History, 18mo Is. 

u „ India, or Third Book of History, 18mo Is. 

„ Sacred History, or Fourth Book of History, 18mo. (cloth, 2s. 6d.) . . 2s. 

Historical Questions, Part I. On the above Four Histories, 18mo Is. 

Gleig's France, ISmo Is. 

Gurney's Historical Sketches, Second Series, St. Louis and Henri IV., fcp.8vo. 6s. 

Keightley's Outlines of History, fcp. 8vo 3s. 6d. 

Mackintosh's England, 2 vols. 8vo 21s. 

Mangnall's Historical and Miscellaneous Questions, 12mo 4s. 6d. 

Mann's Lessons in General Knowledge, or Elementary Reading-Book, fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d. 

Marcet's Conversations on the History of England, 18mo 5s. 

Maunder's Historical Treasury, fcp. 8vo 10s. 

Menzies' Analysis of the Constitution and History of England, 18mo Is. 

Merivale's Romans under the Empire, Vols. I. to III. 8vo, 42s.; Vols. IV. &V. 32s. 

„ Fall of the Roman Empire, 12mo 7s. 6d. 

Mure's Language & Literature of Ancient Greece, 3 vols. 8vo. 36s.; Vol. IV. los.; Vol.V. 18s. 
Schmitz's Greece, mainly based on Thirlwall's, 12mo. with 137 Woodcuts. . . 7s. 6<L 

Scott's Scotland, 2 vols. fcp. 8vo 7s. 

Stafford's Compendium of Universal History, 12mo. 3s. 6d. 

Stephen's Lectures on the History of France, 2 vols. 8vo 24s. 

Stepping-Stone to English History, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

„ „ French History, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

„ „ Grecian History, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

„ „ Roman History, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

Sterne's Questions on Generalities, 1st & 2d Series, 12mo. each (Keys, ea. 4s.) 2s. 

Thirlwall's History of Greece, 8 vols. 8vo. <£3 ; or in 8 vols. fcp. 8vo. 28s. 

Turner's Anglo-Saxons, 3 vols. 8vo. 36s. 

„ England during the Middle Ages, 4 vols. 8vq 50s. 

Tytler's Elements of General History, 8vo 14s. 

Valpy's Latin Epitome of Sacred History, 18mo 2s. 

JUVENILE WORKS. 

Journal kept during a Summer Tour Abroad, fcp. 8vo 5s. 

Marcet's Rich and Poor, 18mo Is. 

„ Seasons, or Stories for very Young Children, 4 vols. 18mo. each. ... 2s. 

„ Willy's Holidays, or Conversations on Government, 18mo 2s. 

„ „ Stories for Young Children, 18mo 2s. 

„ „ Travels on the Railroad, 18mo 2s. 6d« 

London : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS. 



LAND-STJEVEYING and MENSURATION. 

Eoucher's Mensuration, Plane and Solid, with 71 Figures, 12mo 8«. 

Lund's Elements of Geometry and Mensuration, fcp. Svo 

Nesbit's Treatise on Practical Laud-Surveying, with 860 Examples, 8vo 12e. 

„ „ „ Mensuration, lima. (Key, St.) 6§. 

Scott's Mensuration and Trigonometry, for Sandhurst Cottage, Svo 9s. 6d. 

Tate's Principles of Mensuration, Land-Surveying, Levelling, <5cc, 12mo 8s. Od. 

LATIN GRAMMARS, EXERCISE-BOOKS, &c. 

Barrett's Little Arthur's Latin Primer, 12mo Is. 

„ Latin Exercises for the Lowest Form, 12mo 3s. 6d. 

Bradley's New Latin Prose Exercises, 12mo. (Key, 5s.) Se. 6d. 

Collis'sPraxisLatina, Pt. I. fovBe^mners,2s.Gd.', Pt. II. for Advanced Pupils 3s. 

Hiley's Elements of Latin Grammar, 12ino 3*. 

„ Progressive Exercises on Latin Accidence, 12mo 

Howard's Introductory Latin Exercises, 12mo 2s. 6d. 

„ Latin Exercises Extended, 12mo. (Key, 2s. 6d.) .", 

"Kennedy's Elementary Grammar of the Latin Language, 12mo 

„ Latin Vocabulary, on Etymological Principles, 12mo 

„ Child's Latin Primer, or First Lessons, 12mo 2s. 

„ Tirocinium, or First Latin Reading-Book, 12mo 2s. 

„ Palaestra Latina, or Second Latm Keading-Book, 12mo 

„ „ Stili Latini, or Latm Prose Materials, 12mo Ga. 

„ Examples of Latin Style for Oral Use, 12mo 

,, Palsestra Camenarum, or Latin Verse Materials, 12mo 

Moody's New Eton Latin Grammar, in English, 12mo. (Accidence, Is.) 

Py croft's Latin Grammar Practice, 12mo 2s. 6d. 

Rapier's Second Latin Verse-Book, by Arnold, 12mo. ( Key, 2s. t'nl.) 

Valpy's Elements of Latin Grammar, with short English Notes, 12mo 

Elegantise Latin©, 12mo. (Key, 2s. Gd.) Il 

„ Latin Delectus, improved by White, 12mo. (Key, 3s. Gd.) -s. Gd. 

„ Manual of Latin Etymology, fcp. Ito 

„ Sacrse Historise Epitome, with English Notes, 18mo 

Walford'sLatinElegiacs,2Series,12mo.each2s.Cd.; Keyto/7/\v 

„ Shilling Latin Grammar, 12mo 1 1. 

„ Grammar of Latin Poetry, 12mo 

„ Hints on Latin Writing, royal Svo 

„ Exercises in Latin Prose, adapted to the above Hints, 12mo 2s. 6d. 

„ Card of Latin Accidence, Svo 

M M „ Prosody, Is. ; Walford's Card of Latin S\ Dte 

bite's New Latin Grammar, complete, 12mo 

„ Latin Accidence, 12mo. Is.; White's Eton Latin Grammar, Ll 

„ Second or Larger Latin Grammar, 12mo I 

lkins's Notes for Latin Lyrics, for tlio use of Schools, L2mo. Is, 6d. 

nge's Exercises for Latin Verses and Lyrics oul of " Ow n Si I*. M. 

it ,, in Latin Prose Composition, 12mo. vKey, ls.J 5s. 6d. 

inpt's Latm Grammar, translated and adapted by Dr. L. Schmlts, 8m Ms, 
„ School Grammar of the Latin Language, l>y the same, Ifeno *•. 



on: LONGMAN, BROWN, GRKKN, LONGMANS, and Koiti ki- 



10 gjenaral fists of S4ool-§o0ks. 

LATIN and GREEK LEXICONS, DICTIONARIES, &c. 

Bloomfield's Greek-English Lexicon to the New Testament, fcp. 8vo 10s. 6cL 

Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament, royal 8vo 42s. 

Rich's Illustrated Companion to theLatin Dictionary and Greek Lexicon, p.8vo. 21a. 
Riddle's Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary, 8vo. 21s.; andsq.12mo.12s. 

„ Diamond Latin-English Dictionary, royal 32mo. .• 4s. 

„ Copious and Critical Latin-English Lexicon, 4to 31s. 6d. 

„ Latin-English Dictionary, 8vo. 15s. ; square 12mo 7s. 

„ English-Latin Dictionary, 8vo. 7s. ; square 12mo 5s. 6d. 

„ and White's New Latin-English Dictionary, royal 8vo 

„ and Arnold's English-Latin Lexicon, 8vo 25s. 

«» *» English-Latin Dictionary, by Ebden, square post 8vo. 10s. 6d. 

Robinson's Grcek-Englisli Lexicon to the New Testament, 8vo 18s. 

Rost and Palm's Edition of Passow's Greek Lexicon, translated by 

Frttdersdorff, and edited by Riddle and White 

Yonge's Dictionary of Latin Epithets, post 8vo 3s. 6d. 

„ New English-Greek Lexicon, 4to 21s. 

„ Latin Gradus, post 8vo. 9s. ; or with Appendix ofEpitfieti 12s. 

LATIN CLASSICAL AUTHORS. 

Cesar's Commentaries, with English Notes, &c. by Anthon, 12mo 4s. 6d. 

,, „ Anthon's Edition, as above, improved by Hawkins, 12mo. 4s. 6d. 
Cicero's Select Orations, with English Notes, by Anthon, 12ino 6s. 

„ Cato Major and Lcelius, with English Notes, &c. by White, 12mo. 3s. 6d. 
CorxeliusNepos, English Notes, &c. by Bradley, improved by Wliite,12mo. 3s. 6d. 
Eutropius, with English Notes, &c. by Bradley, improved by White, 12mo. 2s 6d. 
Horace, with English Notes by the Rev. J. E. Yonge, Part I. Odes and Epodes 3s. 

„ English Notes and Strictures, by Girdlestone and Osborne, 12mo. . 7s. 6d. 

„ with short English Notes, by Valpy, ISmo 6s. 

Livt, the First Five Books, with English Notes, &c. by Hickie, post 8vo. . . 8s. 6d. 
Ovid's Metamorphoses, Engl. Notes, &c. by Bradley, improved byWhite,12mo. 4s. 6d. 
Ovid and Tibulltjs, the Eton Selection, with English Notes by Valpy, 12mo. 4s. 6d. 
Ph^drus, with English Notes, &c. by Bradley, improved by White, 12mo. 2s. 6d. 

Sallttst, with English Notes, Commentary, &c. by Anthon, 12mo 5s. 

Tacitus, Germania and Agricola, with English Notes, &c. by White, 12mo. 4s. 6d. 
Terence, from Reinhardt's Text, with English Notes, &c.by Hickie, 12mo. 9s. 6d. 
Virgil, Wagner's Text, with Notes and 6000 References, by Pycroft, 12mo. 7s. 6d. 

„ with short English Notes by Valpy, 18mo 7s. 6d. 

MUSIC-BOOKS, &c. 

Conversations on Harmony, with Music interspersed, 8vo 12s. 

Formby's Young Singer's Book of Songs, 4to 8s. 6d. 

„ Collection of Forty Amusing Rounds and Catches Is. 

„ Sacred Songs, 4to 3s. 6d. 

„ Sixty Amusing Songs for Little Singers, 4to 2s. 6d. 

Stepping-Stone to Music, in Question and Answer, 18mo Is. 

Turle and Taylor's Singing-Book, or the Art of Singing at Sight, 16mo 5s. 

London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS. 



dmeral Ipsta oi Stbool-iiooh.s. 1 1 

MATHEMATICS. 

Cape's Course of Mathematics, for Addiscombe College, 2 VQ .'{2*. 

Salmon's Treatise on Conic Sections, 8vo 

Tate's Mathematics for Working Men, Part I. Arithmetic and A >. 2s. 

Waddingham's Geometrical Treatise on Conic Sections, *vo 

Wrigley's Collection of Mathematical Examples and Problems, 8vo b*. Gd. 

MENSURATION (see " Land-Surveying"). 

NATURAL HISTORY. 

Lee's Elements ol Natural History, or First Principles of Zoology, fcp. Svo. 7». Cd. 

Marcet's Lessons on Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, 18mo 2s. 

Maunder's Treasury of Natural History, fcp. 8vo 10a. 

Stepping-Stone to Natural History, in Question and Answer (cloth, h 

Van Der Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology, translated by Chirk, Vol. 1. 8vo. .30s. 

PUBLIC SPEAKING. 

Rowton's Debater, or New Theory of Public Speaking, fcp. 8vo Cs. 

RELIGIOUS and MORAL WORKS. 

Bloomfield's larger Greek Testament, with copious English Notes, 2 v. ^vo. 48a. 
„ College and School Greek Testament, English Notes, fq - 

„ „ „ Lexicon to the Greek Testament, fcp. - 

Conybeare & Howson's Life & Epistles of St. Paid, 2 vols, square crown Bro, 

Cotton's Short Prayers for Boys, 18mo 

Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament, royal Svo 

„ Hebrew Concordance of the Old Testament, 2 vols, n »\ al B\ o.7:>s. 6d. 

Gleig's Sacred History, 18mo. (cloth, 2s. 6d.) 

Home's Introduction to the Study and Knowledge of the Scriptures, Iv.f 

„ Compendium of Ditto, 12mo 

Humphreys's Manual of Moral Philosophy, fcp. Svo Z&. W. 

Jones's Liturgical Class-Book, 12mo It. M. 

eh's Commentary on Exodus, 8vo. 15s. ; and (Abridged) 

Mences of Christianity and Hone Pauliiue, by Potts, - b**. W. 

Ivery Day in Lent, from Jeremy Taylor, fcp. Svo 5a. 

Month preparatory to Confirmation, fcp. Svo 

al of Scripture History, fcp. Svo 

»ek and English Lexicon to the Greek Testament, s \ o, 
usm of Early English Church History, U\\ >\ 

to Bible Knowledge, in Question and Answer, l8mo K 

y or Collective Bible Lessons, 12nu> 

Pictures from the Bible, 12mo 

►duction to the Study of the Bible, fep. *vo 

I History of the World, 8 vols, post 8l 0. .. 

pitome of Sacred History, ISino 

lar Harmony of the Bible, fcp. Svo fie. 

3MAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and IIOIU 



o 



(&tmxvH !psta of Stfj00l-§a0ks. 



SCIENCE in GENERAL, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, &c. 

Book of Domestic Economy, in Gleig's School Series, 18mo Is. 

Brande's Lectures on Organic Chemistry, fcp. 8vo. Woodcuts 7s. 6d. 

Brewster's Treatise on Optics, fcp. 8vo 3s. 6d. 

Downing' s Elements of Practical Hydraulics, 8vo 5s. 

Faraday's Lectures on the Non-metallic Elements, fcp. 8vo 5s. 6d. 

Galbraith and Haughton's Manual of Hydrostatics, 12mo 2s. 

•s ■• *» Mechanics, 12mo 2s. 

i, !» M Optics, 12mo 2s. 

„ ,, Scientific Manuals, each 2s. ; or cloth 2s. Gd. 

Herschel's Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, fcp.8vo. 3s. 6d. 

Hunt's Researches on Light, 8vo. Woodcuts 10s. 6d. 

Lardner and Walker's Electricity, Magnetism, & Meteorology, 2 v. fcp. 8vo. 7s» 

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia, 133 vols £19. 193, 

„ Treatise on Heat, fcp. 8vo. Vignette, &c 3s. 6d. 

Main and Brown's Marine Steam-Engine. 8vo 2s. 6d. 

M „ Questions and Examination-Papers on ditto, 8vo 4s. Cd. 

Mann's Book of Health, in Gleig's School Series, 18mo Is, 

Marcet's Conversations on Natural Philosophy 10s. 6d. 

M „ Land and Water, 8vo 5s. 6d. 

„ „ Vegetable Physiology 9s. 

Maunder's Scientific and Literary Treasury, fcp. 8vo 10s. 

Moseley's Illustrations of Practical Mechanics, fcp. 8vo 8s. 

Pereira's Lectures on Polarised Light, edited by Powell, fcp. 8vo 7s. 

Peschel's Elements of Physics, translated by E. West, 3 vols. fcp. 8vo 21s. 

Phillips's Guide to Geology, Uh Edition, fcp. Svo. Plates 5s. 

„ Treatise on Geology, 2 vols. fcp. Svo. Vignettes, &c 7s. 

Powell's History of Natural Philosophy, fcp. 8vo. Vignette 3s. 6d. 

Stepping-Stone to Animal and Vegetable Physiology, 18mo Is. 

Tate's Course of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, 2 vols. 18mo 7s. 

„ Electricity, simplified for Beginners, 18mo Is. 

„ Elements of Mechanism, 12mo 3s. M 

„ Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, and Pneumatics, for Beginn 1 Lg. 

„ Lessons on Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, 12mo. 

„ Light and Heat familiarly explained for Beginners, 18n 

„ Little Philosopher, or Science of Familiar Things, Vol. 

„ Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity, and Electro-Dynamics, 

„ Mechanics and Steam-Engine simplified for Beginners, 

„ -^Principles of Mechanical Philosophy applied, 8vo 

TRIGONOMETRY. 

Colenso's Plane Trigonometry, Part I. with Logarithms, 12mo. ( 
„ „ „ Part II. with Problems, 12mo. (. 

Galbraith and Haughton's Manual of Trigonometry, 12mo 

Jeans's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Part 1. 12mo. 4s. ; P 
Scott's Plane Trigonometry and Mensuration, for Sandhurst Cc 

London: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS 

. . . , u . . ,„. :... 

JRItfTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEVf-gTEEET SQUA 



i 



rir"— T-7WBF 





LIBRARY OF CONCRESS 


I 


" 


003 193 460 6 ^ 


I 



* - • ■ 




I 



■^yrz 




m& 



